| Antonio Sciarretta's Toponymy |
Umbria
Contents
This page deals with the place-names of a region approximately corresponding to the VI Regio of Italy. This region is bounded by the country of the Picene to the east, the Adriatic sea (north-east), the river Tiber (west). Included here are the towns of the Umbri and the region, formerly Umbrian, which later became the Ager Gallicus.
Common remarks: the place-names have been put in the nominative case, an asterisk * means not attested, reconstructed form. The late place-names of probable Latin origin have not been included. The IE roots are in the form given by Pokorny's Indogermanische Wörterbuch. The links will be active when the single pages will be published, see the main page. For any comment, suggestion, email me.
Umbri
Aesis fl., Aesis
- Place: river Esino (Aesis fl.), Iesi (Aesis), province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Aesis fl., Aesis (Plin., Ptol., Mel., Strab.) Hesis (Peut., Burd.) Aesium (Strab.)
- Etymology: Usually derived from the IE root *eis- 'to move rapidly', sometimes referred to as *ais- [DNGI, p. 255; Villar]. Compare in Italy with Aesernia (Samnium), Aesontius fl. (Venetia), Aesula (Latium). Outside of Italy, see Aeso (Tarraconensis), Aesica (Britannia), *Aesaronis (Sardinia).
Ameria
- Place: Amelia, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Ameria (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Cic., Peut., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Unknown [DNGI, p. 16]. It has been related to the personal names amre, Etruscan, and Amerius, its Latin counterpart. The name can be compared with Ameriola (Latium), that seems to be a diminutive. Thus, likely Ameria was an appellative in an O-language. Temptatively, the name can be explained as *Ames-ia 'the town of the blackbird (or the merl)', from the IE root *ames- 'blackbird, merl' from whence also Latin merula, and attributed to the Umbrian (Eastern Italic) for the rhotacism.
Arna
- Place: unknown, possibly Civitella d'Arna di Perugia, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Arna (Ptol., Plin., Sil.)
- Etymology: The name can be certainly compared with that of the Arnus fl. (Etruria), for which a pre-IE origin is often invoked [DNGI, p. 25]. But the various stems ar-, very common in river-names, can be likely derived from the IE root *er- 'to move', which have a lot of extensions and forms. In this case, the place-name is explained as an adjectival *er-na- and the meaning can vary from 'source (of a moving river)' to 'a risen (town)'.
Asisium
- Place: Assisi, province Perugia, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Asisium (Plin., Prop.) Aesisium (Ptol.)
- Etymology: The name has been explained as as-isium 'town of the hawk', like Brundisium is the 'town of the deer', or from a stem *assa 'stream' [DNGI, p. 28]. Another stem *as- 'dry' has been proposed [Villar, p. 219], that is the IE root *as- 'to burn' according to Pokorny. The suffix -isio- is found in many IE names. Compare with Asseria (Venetia) and, outside of Italy, Asula (Baetica) and Asso (Tarraconensis). The many Greek names beginning with *as- could be derived from Greek asis 'mud, slime', from another IE root.
Attidium
- Place: Attiggio di Fabriano, province Macerata, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Attidium (Plin.)
- Etymology: The suffix -idio- seems to be typically Gaulish, because it is found in the names of Clastidium (Gallia Cispadana) and other names in the Continental Celtic domain outside of Italy. The suffix cannot be Umbrian, since in that language *diy>s. The Gaulish presence is not impossible, since the area of Attidium not far from the Ager Gallicus and close to Ricina (Picenum), for whose name a Gaulish origin has been proposed as well. The stem att- may be explained as an earlier *akt-, from the IE root *ak't- 'promontory, hill'.
Camerinum
- Place: Camerino, province Macerata, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Camerinum (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Tac., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The city was inhabited by the Umbri Camertes. This name can be explained from a previous place-name *Cameria, of which Camerinum is a diminutive, that has a counterpart in Camerium (Latium). These names may be related to Latin camerus, camurius 'bent, crooked', from the IE root *kam-er- 'to bend, curve', alluding to the shape of the site.
Carsulae
- Place: San Damiano di San Gemini, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Carsulae (Plin., Tac.) Carsuli (Strab.)
- Etymology: The name is certainly related to Carseoli (Samnium), in the same Italic domain. Some substratists [DNGI, p. 105], have derived these names from a "mediterranean" stem *cars- 'stony terrain'. But possibly the origin of this series is the IE root *kars- 'to scratch, rub'. Compare, outside of Italy, with Carsium (Dacia).
*Clasius fl.
- Place: river Chiascio, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: *Clasius fl. (inferred from the survival of the name)
- Etymology: According to the hydronym is related to the IE root *klad- 'to hit, cut down', with a meaning similar to Welsh cladd 'ditch'. In Umbrian the cluster *dy shifted to s, like in (Sabine) Clauso for Claudio-. Still today, the Umbrian dialectal chiascio means 'stream, pit'.
Clitumnus fl.
- Place: Clitunno springs, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Clitumnus fl. (Plin., Sil., Hor.)
- Etymology: The name cannot be separated from those of Cliternum (Samnium) and Cliternia (Apulia), in the same Italic domain. Likely, they may be derived from the IE root *k'lei- 'to tip, incline, lean'. In particular, the name of the small stream can be explained from a participe *k'li-to- 'leaned'.
Cursula
- Place: traditionally identified with Civita di Cascia, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Cursula (Dion.)
- Etymology: The place-name can be temptatively derived from a stream's name Cursula explained as 'the small running (stream)', from the IE root *k'ers- 'to run'. The development *r>ur is typically Italic.
Forum Flaminii
- Place: San Giovanni Profiamma di Foligno, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Forum Flaminii (Ptol., Plin., Burd.)
- Etymology: It is a Roman foundation. The name is the Latin forum 'marketplace', specified by the name of the road Flaminia that passed through this town.
Fulginiae
- Place: close to Foligno, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Fulginiae (Plin., Burd.) Fulginia (Sil.)
- Etymology: The name is related to the Roman personal name Fulginius according to [DNGI, p. 205], but more likely it was the personal name to have derived from the placemane. Thus the name can be possibly related to Latin fulcio, -ire 'to truncate', rather than to fulgo 'to flash', and to from the IE root *bhelg'- 'plank, timber'. The site of the ancient town was earlier covered with trees; after they were truncated, the place took its name from the 'timbers' remaining. The name is certainly Italic for the development *bh>f and of the sonant l (from the root at zero-grade) into ul. Likely, it is Umbrian (Eastern Italic) but a Western Italic origin is not impossible.
Helvillum
- Place: area of Fossato di Vico, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Helvillum (Peut.)
- Etymology: The name is related to Helvinus fl. (Picenum) and can be compared with (Old) Latin helvus 'yellowish', that keeps the Italic distinctive development *g'h>h, from the IE root *g'hel-. Thus, the name should have meant 'the yellow (rock, soil)' and can be attributed to the Umbrian language.
Hispellum
- Place: Spello, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Hispellum (Ptol., Plin., Sil.)
- Etymology: The name may be related to Latin hispidus 'rough', a loanword from some Eastern Italic language, from the IE root *g'hers- 'rigid' with a -kw- extension. The meaning of the placename could have been 'rough land' or simply 'land', as the related Greek word chersos.
Iguvium
- Place: Gubbio, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Iguvium (Ptol., Sil.) Iguium (Plin.)
- Etymology: The suffix -uvium is rather clear, but the stem, consisting of only two phonemes, is considered obscure [DNGI, p. 243-244]. One hypothesis presented there is that the earlier form of the name was *Pikuvium '(town, tribe) of the woodpecker', that became Iguvium after loss of initial p, a development that is typical of Gaulish. But actually the stem may be compared with Igilium i., and attributed to some pre-Etruscan, pre-Umbrian (as an Eastern Italic language) stratum.
Interamna Nahars
- Place: Terni, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Interamna (Plin., Peut., Burd.)
- Etymology: Traditionally [DNGI, p. 523], it is explained, like the other Interamnia (Latium) and Interamnia Praetutiorum (Picenum), from a Latin inter amnes 'between the rivers'. The scholar De Giovanni proposed instead a derivation from an Italic word related to the Umbrian tremnu (*treb-no-) 'tabernaculo'.
Matilica
- Place: Matelica, province Macerata, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Matilica (Plin.)
- Etymology: The stem *mat- should belong to a serie including in Italy Mateola (Apulia) and other place-names in the Celtic domain. These names may be related to Latin mateola 'tool to stave in the earth', from an IE root *mat- 'hack, flapper'. Therefore, the name may have originated from some agricultural term.
Mevania
- Place: Bevagna, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Mevania (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Sil., Peut.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name has an almost exact counterpart in Mevaniola, in a more northern area. A relationship with the Oscan *mefia 'middle' has been proposed and explained as an Umbrian appellative. But the existence of the same name in a clearly non-Umbrian area (and of course the difficulties in the development f>v) make this hypothesis hard to support. Instead, a derivation from the IE root *meu- 'wet, dirt, to wash' is very likely.
Nar fl.
- Place: river Nera, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Nar fl. (Plin., Sil.)
- Etymology: The name is usually explained from an hydronymic stem *ner-/nar- [DNGI, p. 338] to which many river-names are related (see Naronus fl.). According to Pokorny, all these river-names are derived from the IE root *ner- 'to conceal, cover, hiding place, hollow'. But in this case the ablaut form nar- looks strange and it can only be explained from an A-language or from a particular development of the sonant r.
Nequinum, Narnia
- Place: Narni, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Nequinum (Plin., Liv., Hor.) Narnia (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Sil., Burd.)
- Etymology: Unknown. For the presence of q the name can hardly be of Umbrian (Eastern Italic) origin. The town took the name Narnia when it became a Roman colony (before 299 b.C.). This second name derives from that of the river Nar fl.
Nuceria Camellaria
- Place: Nocera Umbra, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Nuceria (Ptol., Plin.) Nuceria Camellaria (Peut.) Noceria (Burd.)
- Etymology: According to the explaination first given by Devoto [TI, p. 67], this name and the equivalent Nuceria (Campania) reflect the Osco-Umbrian form *noukria 'the new (town)', derived from an extension (or a variant) *nouk- of the IE root *neu- 'new'. But in Pokorny there is no trace of such an extension. Thus the right form could have been a compound *neu-okri-ya 'the new fortress'. Alternatively, a different root *neuk- 'dark, indistinct' could be invoked, with the root at the zero-grade. A second Nuceria, called Favonensis has to be placed in Umbria, according to Pliny.
Ocriculum
- Place: Otricoli, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Ocriculum (Ptol., Plin., Liv.) Ucriculum (Burd.)
- Etymology: Usually [TI, p. 62; DNGI, p. 360] explained as 'the little rock' from an Umbrian word ocar '(stony) mount' related to Old Latin ocris 'mount'. These are from the variant *ok'ri- of the IE root *ak'- 'sharp'. Compare with Interocrium (Samnium)
Plestia
- Place: Pistia di Serravalle di Chienti, province Macerata, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Plestia (Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Compare with Plestina (Samnium).
Spoletium
- Place: Spoleto, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Spoletium (Ptol., Plin., Paul. Diac.) Spolitium (Burd.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name is certainly due to an O-language (possibly, Eastern Italic that is Umbrian). Temptatively, it can be related to the IE root *(s)pel- 'to split, cut off', with a formant t or a suffix -eto-.
Suillum
- Place: Villa Scirca di Sigillo, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: *Suillum from Suillates (Plin.)
- Etymology: From some information found in the web, possibly the scholar Devoto proposed an earlier form *Sugillum for the place-name, from whence the tribe-name (of the Umbrians) Su(g)illates. The loss of intervocalic g would be, according to this source, typical of the Umbrian language. But the name can be explained as a diminutive *suid-lo- from the IE root *sueid- 'to shine' and interpreted as a 'small clearance' in the plain in which the Umbrian village was built.
Tadinum
- Place: close to Gualdo Tadino, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: *Tadinum from Tadinates (Plin.) Umbrian Tarsina (*Tadina) (inscr.)
- Etymology: Unknown [TI, p. 72]. Possibly, the name has some relationship with a tribe name Tadiates mentioned by Pliny for the Samnium region, in the same Eastern Italic (Osco-Umbrian) domain.
Tifernum Tiberinum
- Place: Cittŕ di Castello, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Tifernum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: The name likely [TI, p. 61-62] derives as a formation *tibher-no- from the Umbrian name of the Tiberis fl. (Latium), showing the typical Eastern Italic (Umbrian) phonetic change *bh>f.
Trebiae
- Place: Trevi, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Trebiae (Plin., inscr.) Treviae (Burd.)
- Etymology: Clearly related to Oscan triibum (*treb-) 'house, building', Umbrian tremnu (*treb-no-) 'tabernaculo', Latin trabs, all from the IE root *treb- 'building, dwelling' [DNGI, p. 539]. The name can be compared with the diminutive form Trebula, for which see under Trebula (Samnium).
Tuder
- Place: Todi, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Tuder (Ptol., Plin., Sil., Peut., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The place-name is the Umbrian appellative tuder 'border', from which Etruscan tular 'border' likely derives (and not vice versa, as stated in [DNGI, p. 527]). The meaning of the placename could have been that of 'edge of a hill'. This appellative has the same origin as the Latin tundo, -ere 'to thrust', from the IE root *(s)teu- 'to push, hit'.
Urvinum Hortense
- Place: Collemancio di Cannara, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Urvinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown.
Vettona
- Place: Bettona, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Vettona (Plin.) Vetona (Peut., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Usually the town is considered an Etruscan foundation on the Umbrian side of the Tiber river, and for the place-name an Etruscan etymology is searched, like the personal name vetu, corresponding to latin Vettonius [DNGI, p. 50].
Galli
Fanum Fortunae
- Place: Fano, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Fanum Fortunae (Ptol., Plin., Caes.) Fanum (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The name is explained from a 'temple of Fortune' existing in this place, named after Latin fanum 'temple'.
Forum Sempronii
- Place: San Martino del Piano di Fossombrone, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Forum Sempronii (Ptol., Plin., Peut.) Forum Simphronii (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The name is the Latin forum 'marketplace' and took the second part from C. Sempronius Gracchus.
Isaurus fl., Pisaurum
- Place: river Foglia (Isaurus fl.), Pesaro (Pisaurum), province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: *Isaurus fl. (from an inscription) Pisaurum (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Mel., Peut.)
- Etymology: The name of the old Umbrian town, later a Roman colony, is usually [DNGI, p. 379] explained as *epi-isaurum 'upon the Isaurus', from the IE preposition *epi 'at, by', as in Opitergium (Venetia), and the name of the river. This latter is likely a compound, from the IE root *eis- 'to move rapidly' and the IE root *auer- 'water, rain, flow', with the meaning of 'rapid stream'. Both the compound parts have counterparts in the same area: see Aesis fl. and Metaurus fl. It is disputed if in the form Isairon found in the Novilara iscription, the name of the river should be recongnized.
Metaurus fl.
- Place: river Metauro, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Metaurus fl. (Plin., Sil.) Mataurus fl. (Peut.)
- Etymology: The name of the river is explained in [DNGI, p. 299] from the same stem *mat-, alternating with *met- as in Matilica. But the name can be instead compared for the first part with Metaurus fl. (Bruttium), Metapontum (Lucania), all from the IE extension *met(a)- of the root *me- 'in the middle of, by, around, with' (Pokorny). The second part is likely an hydronym, and in fact Pokorny proposes a derivation from the IE root *auer- 'water, rain, flow'. Summarizing, the name is built as *met-aur- 'river in the middle'.
Mevaniola
- Place: Pianetto di Galeata, province Forlí, region Emilia-Romagna, Italy
- Name: Mevaniola (Plin.)
- Etymology: Traditionally, the name is explained with the fact that the settlement was founded by Umbrians coming from Mevania. Then Mevaniola is 'the little Mevania'.
Ostra
- Place: Muracce di Ostra Vetere, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Ostra (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name is certainly from an O-language (Italic, Celtic) and has not strict counterparts.
Pitinum Mergens
- Place: close to Acqualagna, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Pitinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: See below under Pitinum Pisaurense.
Pitinum Pisaurense
- Place: Pitino di Macerata Feltria, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Pitinum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Temptatively, the name may be derived from an extension *peit- of the IE root *pei- 'fat, milk', with the possible meaning of 'wet field, grass', from which also Latin pituita. The name has an exact counterpart in Pitinum (Samnium), between the lands of the Sabini and of the Vestini.
Sarsina
- Place: Sarsina, province Forlí-Cesena, region Emilia-Romagna, Italy
- Name: Sarsina (Plin.) Bobium (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The place-name has an exact counterpart in the Umbrian verb sarsite (s<*ç<*k), corresponding to Latin sarcite, from sarcio, -ire 'to remake, repair'. These both derive from the IE root *serk- 'hedge, to fence'. Probably the village arised from a refuge for herdsmen. The late name Bobium can be compared with Bobium (Liguria).
Sena Gallica
- Place: Senigallia, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Sena Gallica (Ptol.) Senagallia (Plin., Peut.) Senogallia (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Usually, it is derived from Gaulish sena 'the old (city)' (UTET), from the IE root *sen- 'old', to which is related also Latin senex.
Sentinum
- Place: umbrian fortress and roman town at Civitalba and Santa Lucia di Sassoferrato, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Sentinum (Ptol., Plin., Liv.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Possibly related to the IE root *sent- 'to take a direction, go', and explained as a Gaulish word *sent- (Anreiter) with the meaning of 'path, route'. The place is close to the Roman via Flaminia, that could have been an important way of communication also during pre-Roman times.
Sestinum
- Place: Sestino, province Arezzo, region Toscana, Italy
- Name: Sestinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: According to [DNGI, p. 499], the name derives from an Etruscan personal name *Sesta, related to Latin Sest(i)us. But the name can be likely related to Umbrian sestu 'I lay', related to Latin sisto, from a reduplication form *si-sta- of the IE root *sta- 'to stand'. Thus, an (Eastern) Italic origin of the place-name is very likely.
Suasa
- Place: Pian Volpello di Castelleone di Suasa, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Suasa (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Possibly, the name is related to some IE root *seu-, for example *seu- 'juice, liquid' as an original river-name. The root is in the zero-grade or O-grade (hence *Sovasa). Compare it with Suana (Etruria).
Tifernum Metaurense
- Place: Sant'Angelo in Vado, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Tifernum (Plin.)
- Etymology: Usually derived from the IE root *tibh- 'to melt'. The name may be explained from a S-stem *tibhes- 'river, marsh', that has a Latin counterpart in Tiber fl., from which name also comes Tifernum Tiberinum. The feature *bh>f is tipically Umbrian, and to the related Oscan language belongs the place-name Tifernum (Samnium). Related to the name, outside of Italy, are also Tibesis fl. (Dacia), Tibina fl. (Sarmatia).
Tuficum
- Place: Borgo Tufico di Fabriano, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Tuficum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: The place-name can likely derive from an Umbrian appellative related to oscan *tufus, from which came the Latin tofus 'tufo stone'.
Urvinum Metaurense
- Place: Urbino, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Urvinum (Plin.) Urbinum (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Unknown.
not identified
Acerrae
- Place: not identified
- Name: Acerrae (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name has an exact counterpart in Acerrae (Campania). Both may be derived from the IE root *akwa- 'water, river' [DNGI, p. 2], with a development *kw>k that is certainly non-Umbrian. Another, more traditional interpretation of the names is from Latin (but possibly an Etruscan appellative) acerra 'casket for incense'.
Casuentum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Casuentum from Casuentillani (Plin.)
- Etymology: Like Casuentus fl. (Lucania), in the same Italic domain, the name is built of a stem *kas-, possibly from the IE root *k'as- 'gray' (compare with Paelignan casnar 'senex'), and a second part that may be the IE *-uent- 'rich of', or a participe marker. In this case, the place-names can be explained from some Osco-Umbrian appellative *kas(u)o- indicating something 'gray' or 'pale', or it can be the participe of an adjective meaning 'shining'.
Crinivolum
- Place: not identified
- Name: Crinivolum (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name is built of a first term crina- that may be (or at least related to) a Gaulish *crina (Anreiter) 'mountain crack', from the IE root *(s)k(e)rei- 'to cut, separate'. It is not known whether this place was in the Ager Gallicus or in the Umbria proprie dicta.
Dola
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Dola from Dolates (Plin.)
- Etymology: The place-name is likely an appellative meaning 'cavity', from the IE root *dhel- 'curve, hollow'. The language of the appellative is an O-language, in which *dh>d (and not *dh>f as in Italic). This language is likely the Gaulish, to which the Welsh dol 'valley' can be compared.
Paesinum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Paesinum from Paesinates (Plin.)
- Etymology: In this place-name, a root *pais- can be recognized, which according to [Villar] is an A-grade form of the IE root *k'ueis-, an extension of *k'uei- 'shining, white'. The phonetic feature *kw>p is a distinguished trait of the Eastern Italic (Umbrian), but the ablaut form in a is not clear.
Vindinum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Vindinum from Vindinates (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name is likely of Gaulish origin, from vindos 'white' - compare e.g. with Vindomagus (Narbonensis) -, that is a word related to latin video, -ere 'to see', from the IE root *ueid- 'to see, to know'. It is thus probable that the place was situated in the Ager Gallicus or close to the Gaulish-influenced area of the Picenum.
Visuentum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Visuentum from Visuentani (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name should refer originally to a river or stream, since it is likely that the first part vis- is the IE root *ueis- 'to flow, poison' in its zero-grade form. The second part is clearly the IE *-uent- 'rich of', so that the meaning of the place-name is 'rich of veins (of water)'. Nothing can be said about the attribution of the name.
Conclusions
This region is recorded to have been inhabited by the Umbrians, together with some other areas later lost to the Etruscans and Gauls. The language of the Umbrians is that of the Tabulae Iguvinae, and belongs to the Eastern Italic (or Osco-Umbrian) group. The names that show the typical traits of this language group (initial f from the IE aspirated voiced stops, development of the labiovelars into labials, vowelization of the sonants, etc.) are spread across the whole region.
A Gaulish toponymy is also certain and well distributed especially in the Ager Gallicus, as it is obvious, but also south of it at the western borders of Picenum. This Gaulish presence is surprising but appears rather clearly from several place-names perfectly fitted by Gaulish appellatives.
- Place: Amelia, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Ameria (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Cic., Peut., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Unknown [DNGI, p. 16]. It has been related to the personal names amre, Etruscan, and Amerius, its Latin counterpart. The name can be compared with Ameriola (Latium), that seems to be a diminutive. Thus, likely Ameria was an appellative in an O-language. Temptatively, the name can be explained as *Ames-ia 'the town of the blackbird (or the merl)', from the IE root *ames- 'blackbird, merl' from whence also Latin merula, and attributed to the Umbrian (Eastern Italic) for the rhotacism.
Arna
- Place: unknown, possibly Civitella d'Arna di Perugia, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Arna (Ptol., Plin., Sil.)
- Etymology: The name can be certainly compared with that of the Arnus fl. (Etruria), for which a pre-IE origin is often invoked [DNGI, p. 25]. But the various stems ar-, very common in river-names, can be likely derived from the IE root *er- 'to move', which have a lot of extensions and forms. In this case, the place-name is explained as an adjectival *er-na- and the meaning can vary from 'source (of a moving river)' to 'a risen (town)'.
Asisium
- Place: Assisi, province Perugia, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Asisium (Plin., Prop.) Aesisium (Ptol.)
- Etymology: The name has been explained as as-isium 'town of the hawk', like Brundisium is the 'town of the deer', or from a stem *assa 'stream' [DNGI, p. 28]. Another stem *as- 'dry' has been proposed [Villar, p. 219], that is the IE root *as- 'to burn' according to Pokorny. The suffix -isio- is found in many IE names. Compare with Asseria (Venetia) and, outside of Italy, Asula (Baetica) and Asso (Tarraconensis). The many Greek names beginning with *as- could be derived from Greek asis 'mud, slime', from another IE root.
Attidium
- Place: Attiggio di Fabriano, province Macerata, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Attidium (Plin.)
- Etymology: The suffix -idio- seems to be typically Gaulish, because it is found in the names of Clastidium (Gallia Cispadana) and other names in the Continental Celtic domain outside of Italy. The suffix cannot be Umbrian, since in that language *diy>s. The Gaulish presence is not impossible, since the area of Attidium not far from the Ager Gallicus and close to Ricina (Picenum), for whose name a Gaulish origin has been proposed as well. The stem att- may be explained as an earlier *akt-, from the IE root *ak't- 'promontory, hill'.
Camerinum
- Place: Camerino, province Macerata, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Camerinum (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Tac., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The city was inhabited by the Umbri Camertes. This name can be explained from a previous place-name *Cameria, of which Camerinum is a diminutive, that has a counterpart in Camerium (Latium). These names may be related to Latin camerus, camurius 'bent, crooked', from the IE root *kam-er- 'to bend, curve', alluding to the shape of the site.
Carsulae
- Place: San Damiano di San Gemini, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Carsulae (Plin., Tac.) Carsuli (Strab.)
- Etymology: The name is certainly related to Carseoli (Samnium), in the same Italic domain. Some substratists [DNGI, p. 105], have derived these names from a "mediterranean" stem *cars- 'stony terrain'. But possibly the origin of this series is the IE root *kars- 'to scratch, rub'. Compare, outside of Italy, with Carsium (Dacia).
*Clasius fl.
- Place: river Chiascio, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: *Clasius fl. (inferred from the survival of the name)
- Etymology: According to the hydronym is related to the IE root *klad- 'to hit, cut down', with a meaning similar to Welsh cladd 'ditch'. In Umbrian the cluster *dy shifted to s, like in (Sabine) Clauso for Claudio-. Still today, the Umbrian dialectal chiascio means 'stream, pit'.
Clitumnus fl.
- Place: Clitunno springs, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Clitumnus fl. (Plin., Sil., Hor.)
- Etymology: The name cannot be separated from those of Cliternum (Samnium) and Cliternia (Apulia), in the same Italic domain. Likely, they may be derived from the IE root *k'lei- 'to tip, incline, lean'. In particular, the name of the small stream can be explained from a participe *k'li-to- 'leaned'.
Cursula
- Place: traditionally identified with Civita di Cascia, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Cursula (Dion.)
- Etymology: The place-name can be temptatively derived from a stream's name Cursula explained as 'the small running (stream)', from the IE root *k'ers- 'to run'. The development *r>ur is typically Italic.
Forum Flaminii
- Place: San Giovanni Profiamma di Foligno, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Forum Flaminii (Ptol., Plin., Burd.)
- Etymology: It is a Roman foundation. The name is the Latin forum 'marketplace', specified by the name of the road Flaminia that passed through this town.
Fulginiae
- Place: close to Foligno, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Fulginiae (Plin., Burd.) Fulginia (Sil.)
- Etymology: The name is related to the Roman personal name Fulginius according to [DNGI, p. 205], but more likely it was the personal name to have derived from the placemane. Thus the name can be possibly related to Latin fulcio, -ire 'to truncate', rather than to fulgo 'to flash', and to from the IE root *bhelg'- 'plank, timber'. The site of the ancient town was earlier covered with trees; after they were truncated, the place took its name from the 'timbers' remaining. The name is certainly Italic for the development *bh>f and of the sonant l (from the root at zero-grade) into ul. Likely, it is Umbrian (Eastern Italic) but a Western Italic origin is not impossible.
Helvillum
- Place: area of Fossato di Vico, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Helvillum (Peut.)
- Etymology: The name is related to Helvinus fl. (Picenum) and can be compared with (Old) Latin helvus 'yellowish', that keeps the Italic distinctive development *g'h>h, from the IE root *g'hel-. Thus, the name should have meant 'the yellow (rock, soil)' and can be attributed to the Umbrian language.
Hispellum
- Place: Spello, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Hispellum (Ptol., Plin., Sil.)
- Etymology: The name may be related to Latin hispidus 'rough', a loanword from some Eastern Italic language, from the IE root *g'hers- 'rigid' with a -kw- extension. The meaning of the placename could have been 'rough land' or simply 'land', as the related Greek word chersos.
Iguvium
- Place: Gubbio, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Iguvium (Ptol., Sil.) Iguium (Plin.)
- Etymology: The suffix -uvium is rather clear, but the stem, consisting of only two phonemes, is considered obscure [DNGI, p. 243-244]. One hypothesis presented there is that the earlier form of the name was *Pikuvium '(town, tribe) of the woodpecker', that became Iguvium after loss of initial p, a development that is typical of Gaulish. But actually the stem may be compared with Igilium i., and attributed to some pre-Etruscan, pre-Umbrian (as an Eastern Italic language) stratum.
Interamna Nahars
- Place: Terni, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Interamna (Plin., Peut., Burd.)
- Etymology: Traditionally [DNGI, p. 523], it is explained, like the other Interamnia (Latium) and Interamnia Praetutiorum (Picenum), from a Latin inter amnes 'between the rivers'. The scholar De Giovanni proposed instead a derivation from an Italic word related to the Umbrian tremnu (*treb-no-) 'tabernaculo'.
Matilica
- Place: Matelica, province Macerata, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Matilica (Plin.)
- Etymology: The stem *mat- should belong to a serie including in Italy Mateola (Apulia) and other place-names in the Celtic domain. These names may be related to Latin mateola 'tool to stave in the earth', from an IE root *mat- 'hack, flapper'. Therefore, the name may have originated from some agricultural term.
Mevania
- Place: Bevagna, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Mevania (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Sil., Peut.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name has an almost exact counterpart in Mevaniola, in a more northern area. A relationship with the Oscan *mefia 'middle' has been proposed and explained as an Umbrian appellative. But the existence of the same name in a clearly non-Umbrian area (and of course the difficulties in the development f>v) make this hypothesis hard to support. Instead, a derivation from the IE root *meu- 'wet, dirt, to wash' is very likely.
Nar fl.
- Place: river Nera, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Nar fl. (Plin., Sil.)
- Etymology: The name is usually explained from an hydronymic stem *ner-/nar- [DNGI, p. 338] to which many river-names are related (see Naronus fl.). According to Pokorny, all these river-names are derived from the IE root *ner- 'to conceal, cover, hiding place, hollow'. But in this case the ablaut form nar- looks strange and it can only be explained from an A-language or from a particular development of the sonant r.
Nequinum, Narnia
- Place: Narni, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Nequinum (Plin., Liv., Hor.) Narnia (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Sil., Burd.)
- Etymology: Unknown. For the presence of q the name can hardly be of Umbrian (Eastern Italic) origin. The town took the name Narnia when it became a Roman colony (before 299 b.C.). This second name derives from that of the river Nar fl.
Nuceria Camellaria
- Place: Nocera Umbra, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Nuceria (Ptol., Plin.) Nuceria Camellaria (Peut.) Noceria (Burd.)
- Etymology: According to the explaination first given by Devoto [TI, p. 67], this name and the equivalent Nuceria (Campania) reflect the Osco-Umbrian form *noukria 'the new (town)', derived from an extension (or a variant) *nouk- of the IE root *neu- 'new'. But in Pokorny there is no trace of such an extension. Thus the right form could have been a compound *neu-okri-ya 'the new fortress'. Alternatively, a different root *neuk- 'dark, indistinct' could be invoked, with the root at the zero-grade. A second Nuceria, called Favonensis has to be placed in Umbria, according to Pliny.
Ocriculum
- Place: Otricoli, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Ocriculum (Ptol., Plin., Liv.) Ucriculum (Burd.)
- Etymology: Usually [TI, p. 62; DNGI, p. 360] explained as 'the little rock' from an Umbrian word ocar '(stony) mount' related to Old Latin ocris 'mount'. These are from the variant *ok'ri- of the IE root *ak'- 'sharp'. Compare with Interocrium (Samnium)
Plestia
- Place: Pistia di Serravalle di Chienti, province Macerata, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Plestia (Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Compare with Plestina (Samnium).
Spoletium
- Place: Spoleto, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Spoletium (Ptol., Plin., Paul. Diac.) Spolitium (Burd.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name is certainly due to an O-language (possibly, Eastern Italic that is Umbrian). Temptatively, it can be related to the IE root *(s)pel- 'to split, cut off', with a formant t or a suffix -eto-.
Suillum
- Place: Villa Scirca di Sigillo, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: *Suillum from Suillates (Plin.)
- Etymology: From some information found in the web, possibly the scholar Devoto proposed an earlier form *Sugillum for the place-name, from whence the tribe-name (of the Umbrians) Su(g)illates. The loss of intervocalic g would be, according to this source, typical of the Umbrian language. But the name can be explained as a diminutive *suid-lo- from the IE root *sueid- 'to shine' and interpreted as a 'small clearance' in the plain in which the Umbrian village was built.
Tadinum
- Place: close to Gualdo Tadino, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: *Tadinum from Tadinates (Plin.) Umbrian Tarsina (*Tadina) (inscr.)
- Etymology: Unknown [TI, p. 72]. Possibly, the name has some relationship with a tribe name Tadiates mentioned by Pliny for the Samnium region, in the same Eastern Italic (Osco-Umbrian) domain.
Tifernum Tiberinum
- Place: Cittŕ di Castello, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Tifernum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: The name likely [TI, p. 61-62] derives as a formation *tibher-no- from the Umbrian name of the Tiberis fl. (Latium), showing the typical Eastern Italic (Umbrian) phonetic change *bh>f.
Trebiae
- Place: Trevi, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Trebiae (Plin., inscr.) Treviae (Burd.)
- Etymology: Clearly related to Oscan triibum (*treb-) 'house, building', Umbrian tremnu (*treb-no-) 'tabernaculo', Latin trabs, all from the IE root *treb- 'building, dwelling' [DNGI, p. 539]. The name can be compared with the diminutive form Trebula, for which see under Trebula (Samnium).
Tuder
- Place: Todi, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Tuder (Ptol., Plin., Sil., Peut., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The place-name is the Umbrian appellative tuder 'border', from which Etruscan tular 'border' likely derives (and not vice versa, as stated in [DNGI, p. 527]). The meaning of the placename could have been that of 'edge of a hill'. This appellative has the same origin as the Latin tundo, -ere 'to thrust', from the IE root *(s)teu- 'to push, hit'.
Urvinum Hortense
- Place: Collemancio di Cannara, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Urvinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown.
Vettona
- Place: Bettona, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Vettona (Plin.) Vetona (Peut., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Usually the town is considered an Etruscan foundation on the Umbrian side of the Tiber river, and for the place-name an Etruscan etymology is searched, like the personal name vetu, corresponding to latin Vettonius [DNGI, p. 50].
Galli
Fanum Fortunae
- Place: Fano, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Fanum Fortunae (Ptol., Plin., Caes.) Fanum (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The name is explained from a 'temple of Fortune' existing in this place, named after Latin fanum 'temple'.
Forum Sempronii
- Place: San Martino del Piano di Fossombrone, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Forum Sempronii (Ptol., Plin., Peut.) Forum Simphronii (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The name is the Latin forum 'marketplace' and took the second part from C. Sempronius Gracchus.
Isaurus fl., Pisaurum
- Place: river Foglia (Isaurus fl.), Pesaro (Pisaurum), province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: *Isaurus fl. (from an inscription) Pisaurum (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Mel., Peut.)
- Etymology: The name of the old Umbrian town, later a Roman colony, is usually [DNGI, p. 379] explained as *epi-isaurum 'upon the Isaurus', from the IE preposition *epi 'at, by', as in Opitergium (Venetia), and the name of the river. This latter is likely a compound, from the IE root *eis- 'to move rapidly' and the IE root *auer- 'water, rain, flow', with the meaning of 'rapid stream'. Both the compound parts have counterparts in the same area: see Aesis fl. and Metaurus fl. It is disputed if in the form Isairon found in the Novilara iscription, the name of the river should be recongnized.
Metaurus fl.
- Place: river Metauro, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Metaurus fl. (Plin., Sil.) Mataurus fl. (Peut.)
- Etymology: The name of the river is explained in [DNGI, p. 299] from the same stem *mat-, alternating with *met- as in Matilica. But the name can be instead compared for the first part with Metaurus fl. (Bruttium), Metapontum (Lucania), all from the IE extension *met(a)- of the root *me- 'in the middle of, by, around, with' (Pokorny). The second part is likely an hydronym, and in fact Pokorny proposes a derivation from the IE root *auer- 'water, rain, flow'. Summarizing, the name is built as *met-aur- 'river in the middle'.
Mevaniola
- Place: Pianetto di Galeata, province Forlí, region Emilia-Romagna, Italy
- Name: Mevaniola (Plin.)
- Etymology: Traditionally, the name is explained with the fact that the settlement was founded by Umbrians coming from Mevania. Then Mevaniola is 'the little Mevania'.
Ostra
- Place: Muracce di Ostra Vetere, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Ostra (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name is certainly from an O-language (Italic, Celtic) and has not strict counterparts.
Pitinum Mergens
- Place: close to Acqualagna, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Pitinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: See below under Pitinum Pisaurense.
Pitinum Pisaurense
- Place: Pitino di Macerata Feltria, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Pitinum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Temptatively, the name may be derived from an extension *peit- of the IE root *pei- 'fat, milk', with the possible meaning of 'wet field, grass', from which also Latin pituita. The name has an exact counterpart in Pitinum (Samnium), between the lands of the Sabini and of the Vestini.
Sarsina
- Place: Sarsina, province Forlí-Cesena, region Emilia-Romagna, Italy
- Name: Sarsina (Plin.) Bobium (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The place-name has an exact counterpart in the Umbrian verb sarsite (s<*ç<*k), corresponding to Latin sarcite, from sarcio, -ire 'to remake, repair'. These both derive from the IE root *serk- 'hedge, to fence'. Probably the village arised from a refuge for herdsmen. The late name Bobium can be compared with Bobium (Liguria).
Sena Gallica
- Place: Senigallia, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Sena Gallica (Ptol.) Senagallia (Plin., Peut.) Senogallia (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Usually, it is derived from Gaulish sena 'the old (city)' (UTET), from the IE root *sen- 'old', to which is related also Latin senex.
Sentinum
- Place: umbrian fortress and roman town at Civitalba and Santa Lucia di Sassoferrato, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Sentinum (Ptol., Plin., Liv.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Possibly related to the IE root *sent- 'to take a direction, go', and explained as a Gaulish word *sent- (Anreiter) with the meaning of 'path, route'. The place is close to the Roman via Flaminia, that could have been an important way of communication also during pre-Roman times.
Sestinum
- Place: Sestino, province Arezzo, region Toscana, Italy
- Name: Sestinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: According to [DNGI, p. 499], the name derives from an Etruscan personal name *Sesta, related to Latin Sest(i)us. But the name can be likely related to Umbrian sestu 'I lay', related to Latin sisto, from a reduplication form *si-sta- of the IE root *sta- 'to stand'. Thus, an (Eastern) Italic origin of the place-name is very likely.
Suasa
- Place: Pian Volpello di Castelleone di Suasa, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Suasa (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Possibly, the name is related to some IE root *seu-, for example *seu- 'juice, liquid' as an original river-name. The root is in the zero-grade or O-grade (hence *Sovasa). Compare it with Suana (Etruria).
Tifernum Metaurense
- Place: Sant'Angelo in Vado, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Tifernum (Plin.)
- Etymology: Usually derived from the IE root *tibh- 'to melt'. The name may be explained from a S-stem *tibhes- 'river, marsh', that has a Latin counterpart in Tiber fl., from which name also comes Tifernum Tiberinum. The feature *bh>f is tipically Umbrian, and to the related Oscan language belongs the place-name Tifernum (Samnium). Related to the name, outside of Italy, are also Tibesis fl. (Dacia), Tibina fl. (Sarmatia).
Tuficum
- Place: Borgo Tufico di Fabriano, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Tuficum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: The place-name can likely derive from an Umbrian appellative related to oscan *tufus, from which came the Latin tofus 'tufo stone'.
Urvinum Metaurense
- Place: Urbino, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Urvinum (Plin.) Urbinum (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Unknown.
not identified
Acerrae
- Place: not identified
- Name: Acerrae (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name has an exact counterpart in Acerrae (Campania). Both may be derived from the IE root *akwa- 'water, river' [DNGI, p. 2], with a development *kw>k that is certainly non-Umbrian. Another, more traditional interpretation of the names is from Latin (but possibly an Etruscan appellative) acerra 'casket for incense'.
Casuentum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Casuentum from Casuentillani (Plin.)
- Etymology: Like Casuentus fl. (Lucania), in the same Italic domain, the name is built of a stem *kas-, possibly from the IE root *k'as- 'gray' (compare with Paelignan casnar 'senex'), and a second part that may be the IE *-uent- 'rich of', or a participe marker. In this case, the place-names can be explained from some Osco-Umbrian appellative *kas(u)o- indicating something 'gray' or 'pale', or it can be the participe of an adjective meaning 'shining'.
Crinivolum
- Place: not identified
- Name: Crinivolum (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name is built of a first term crina- that may be (or at least related to) a Gaulish *crina (Anreiter) 'mountain crack', from the IE root *(s)k(e)rei- 'to cut, separate'. It is not known whether this place was in the Ager Gallicus or in the Umbria proprie dicta.
Dola
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Dola from Dolates (Plin.)
- Etymology: The place-name is likely an appellative meaning 'cavity', from the IE root *dhel- 'curve, hollow'. The language of the appellative is an O-language, in which *dh>d (and not *dh>f as in Italic). This language is likely the Gaulish, to which the Welsh dol 'valley' can be compared.
Paesinum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Paesinum from Paesinates (Plin.)
- Etymology: In this place-name, a root *pais- can be recognized, which according to [Villar] is an A-grade form of the IE root *k'ueis-, an extension of *k'uei- 'shining, white'. The phonetic feature *kw>p is a distinguished trait of the Eastern Italic (Umbrian), but the ablaut form in a is not clear.
Vindinum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Vindinum from Vindinates (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name is likely of Gaulish origin, from vindos 'white' - compare e.g. with Vindomagus (Narbonensis) -, that is a word related to latin video, -ere 'to see', from the IE root *ueid- 'to see, to know'. It is thus probable that the place was situated in the Ager Gallicus or close to the Gaulish-influenced area of the Picenum.
Visuentum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Visuentum from Visuentani (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name should refer originally to a river or stream, since it is likely that the first part vis- is the IE root *ueis- 'to flow, poison' in its zero-grade form. The second part is clearly the IE *-uent- 'rich of', so that the meaning of the place-name is 'rich of veins (of water)'. Nothing can be said about the attribution of the name.
Conclusions
This region is recorded to have been inhabited by the Umbrians, together with some other areas later lost to the Etruscans and Gauls. The language of the Umbrians is that of the Tabulae Iguvinae, and belongs to the Eastern Italic (or Osco-Umbrian) group. The names that show the typical traits of this language group (initial f from the IE aspirated voiced stops, development of the labiovelars into labials, vowelization of the sonants, etc.) are spread across the whole region.
A Gaulish toponymy is also certain and well distributed especially in the Ager Gallicus, as it is obvious, but also south of it at the western borders of Picenum. This Gaulish presence is surprising but appears rather clearly from several place-names perfectly fitted by Gaulish appellatives.
- Place: Attiggio di Fabriano, province Macerata, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Attidium (Plin.)
- Etymology: The suffix -idio- seems to be typically Gaulish, because it is found in the names of Clastidium (Gallia Cispadana) and other names in the Continental Celtic domain outside of Italy. The suffix cannot be Umbrian, since in that language *diy>s. The Gaulish presence is not impossible, since the area of Attidium not far from the Ager Gallicus and close to Ricina (Picenum), for whose name a Gaulish origin has been proposed as well. The stem att- may be explained as an earlier *akt-, from the IE root *ak't- 'promontory, hill'.
Camerinum
- Place: Camerino, province Macerata, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Camerinum (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Tac., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The city was inhabited by the Umbri Camertes. This name can be explained from a previous place-name *Cameria, of which Camerinum is a diminutive, that has a counterpart in Camerium (Latium). These names may be related to Latin camerus, camurius 'bent, crooked', from the IE root *kam-er- 'to bend, curve', alluding to the shape of the site.
Carsulae
- Place: San Damiano di San Gemini, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Carsulae (Plin., Tac.) Carsuli (Strab.)
- Etymology: The name is certainly related to Carseoli (Samnium), in the same Italic domain. Some substratists [DNGI, p. 105], have derived these names from a "mediterranean" stem *cars- 'stony terrain'. But possibly the origin of this series is the IE root *kars- 'to scratch, rub'. Compare, outside of Italy, with Carsium (Dacia).
*Clasius fl.
- Place: river Chiascio, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: *Clasius fl. (inferred from the survival of the name)
- Etymology: According to the hydronym is related to the IE root *klad- 'to hit, cut down', with a meaning similar to Welsh cladd 'ditch'. In Umbrian the cluster *dy shifted to s, like in (Sabine) Clauso for Claudio-. Still today, the Umbrian dialectal chiascio means 'stream, pit'.
Clitumnus fl.
- Place: Clitunno springs, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Clitumnus fl. (Plin., Sil., Hor.)
- Etymology: The name cannot be separated from those of Cliternum (Samnium) and Cliternia (Apulia), in the same Italic domain. Likely, they may be derived from the IE root *k'lei- 'to tip, incline, lean'. In particular, the name of the small stream can be explained from a participe *k'li-to- 'leaned'.
Cursula
- Place: traditionally identified with Civita di Cascia, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Cursula (Dion.)
- Etymology: The place-name can be temptatively derived from a stream's name Cursula explained as 'the small running (stream)', from the IE root *k'ers- 'to run'. The development *r>ur is typically Italic.
Forum Flaminii
- Place: San Giovanni Profiamma di Foligno, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Forum Flaminii (Ptol., Plin., Burd.)
- Etymology: It is a Roman foundation. The name is the Latin forum 'marketplace', specified by the name of the road Flaminia that passed through this town.
Fulginiae
- Place: close to Foligno, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Fulginiae (Plin., Burd.) Fulginia (Sil.)
- Etymology: The name is related to the Roman personal name Fulginius according to [DNGI, p. 205], but more likely it was the personal name to have derived from the placemane. Thus the name can be possibly related to Latin fulcio, -ire 'to truncate', rather than to fulgo 'to flash', and to from the IE root *bhelg'- 'plank, timber'. The site of the ancient town was earlier covered with trees; after they were truncated, the place took its name from the 'timbers' remaining. The name is certainly Italic for the development *bh>f and of the sonant l (from the root at zero-grade) into ul. Likely, it is Umbrian (Eastern Italic) but a Western Italic origin is not impossible.
Helvillum
- Place: area of Fossato di Vico, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Helvillum (Peut.)
- Etymology: The name is related to Helvinus fl. (Picenum) and can be compared with (Old) Latin helvus 'yellowish', that keeps the Italic distinctive development *g'h>h, from the IE root *g'hel-. Thus, the name should have meant 'the yellow (rock, soil)' and can be attributed to the Umbrian language.
Hispellum
- Place: Spello, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Hispellum (Ptol., Plin., Sil.)
- Etymology: The name may be related to Latin hispidus 'rough', a loanword from some Eastern Italic language, from the IE root *g'hers- 'rigid' with a -kw- extension. The meaning of the placename could have been 'rough land' or simply 'land', as the related Greek word chersos.
Iguvium
- Place: Gubbio, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Iguvium (Ptol., Sil.) Iguium (Plin.)
- Etymology: The suffix -uvium is rather clear, but the stem, consisting of only two phonemes, is considered obscure [DNGI, p. 243-244]. One hypothesis presented there is that the earlier form of the name was *Pikuvium '(town, tribe) of the woodpecker', that became Iguvium after loss of initial p, a development that is typical of Gaulish. But actually the stem may be compared with Igilium i., and attributed to some pre-Etruscan, pre-Umbrian (as an Eastern Italic language) stratum.
Interamna Nahars
- Place: Terni, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Interamna (Plin., Peut., Burd.)
- Etymology: Traditionally [DNGI, p. 523], it is explained, like the other Interamnia (Latium) and Interamnia Praetutiorum (Picenum), from a Latin inter amnes 'between the rivers'. The scholar De Giovanni proposed instead a derivation from an Italic word related to the Umbrian tremnu (*treb-no-) 'tabernaculo'.
Matilica
- Place: Matelica, province Macerata, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Matilica (Plin.)
- Etymology: The stem *mat- should belong to a serie including in Italy Mateola (Apulia) and other place-names in the Celtic domain. These names may be related to Latin mateola 'tool to stave in the earth', from an IE root *mat- 'hack, flapper'. Therefore, the name may have originated from some agricultural term.
Mevania
- Place: Bevagna, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Mevania (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Sil., Peut.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name has an almost exact counterpart in Mevaniola, in a more northern area. A relationship with the Oscan *mefia 'middle' has been proposed and explained as an Umbrian appellative. But the existence of the same name in a clearly non-Umbrian area (and of course the difficulties in the development f>v) make this hypothesis hard to support. Instead, a derivation from the IE root *meu- 'wet, dirt, to wash' is very likely.
Nar fl.
- Place: river Nera, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Nar fl. (Plin., Sil.)
- Etymology: The name is usually explained from an hydronymic stem *ner-/nar- [DNGI, p. 338] to which many river-names are related (see Naronus fl.). According to Pokorny, all these river-names are derived from the IE root *ner- 'to conceal, cover, hiding place, hollow'. But in this case the ablaut form nar- looks strange and it can only be explained from an A-language or from a particular development of the sonant r.
Nequinum, Narnia
- Place: Narni, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Nequinum (Plin., Liv., Hor.) Narnia (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Sil., Burd.)
- Etymology: Unknown. For the presence of q the name can hardly be of Umbrian (Eastern Italic) origin. The town took the name Narnia when it became a Roman colony (before 299 b.C.). This second name derives from that of the river Nar fl.
Nuceria Camellaria
- Place: Nocera Umbra, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Nuceria (Ptol., Plin.) Nuceria Camellaria (Peut.) Noceria (Burd.)
- Etymology: According to the explaination first given by Devoto [TI, p. 67], this name and the equivalent Nuceria (Campania) reflect the Osco-Umbrian form *noukria 'the new (town)', derived from an extension (or a variant) *nouk- of the IE root *neu- 'new'. But in Pokorny there is no trace of such an extension. Thus the right form could have been a compound *neu-okri-ya 'the new fortress'. Alternatively, a different root *neuk- 'dark, indistinct' could be invoked, with the root at the zero-grade. A second Nuceria, called Favonensis has to be placed in Umbria, according to Pliny.
Ocriculum
- Place: Otricoli, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Ocriculum (Ptol., Plin., Liv.) Ucriculum (Burd.)
- Etymology: Usually [TI, p. 62; DNGI, p. 360] explained as 'the little rock' from an Umbrian word ocar '(stony) mount' related to Old Latin ocris 'mount'. These are from the variant *ok'ri- of the IE root *ak'- 'sharp'. Compare with Interocrium (Samnium)
Plestia
- Place: Pistia di Serravalle di Chienti, province Macerata, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Plestia (Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Compare with Plestina (Samnium).
Spoletium
- Place: Spoleto, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Spoletium (Ptol., Plin., Paul. Diac.) Spolitium (Burd.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name is certainly due to an O-language (possibly, Eastern Italic that is Umbrian). Temptatively, it can be related to the IE root *(s)pel- 'to split, cut off', with a formant t or a suffix -eto-.
Suillum
- Place: Villa Scirca di Sigillo, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: *Suillum from Suillates (Plin.)
- Etymology: From some information found in the web, possibly the scholar Devoto proposed an earlier form *Sugillum for the place-name, from whence the tribe-name (of the Umbrians) Su(g)illates. The loss of intervocalic g would be, according to this source, typical of the Umbrian language. But the name can be explained as a diminutive *suid-lo- from the IE root *sueid- 'to shine' and interpreted as a 'small clearance' in the plain in which the Umbrian village was built.
Tadinum
- Place: close to Gualdo Tadino, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: *Tadinum from Tadinates (Plin.) Umbrian Tarsina (*Tadina) (inscr.)
- Etymology: Unknown [TI, p. 72]. Possibly, the name has some relationship with a tribe name Tadiates mentioned by Pliny for the Samnium region, in the same Eastern Italic (Osco-Umbrian) domain.
Tifernum Tiberinum
- Place: Cittŕ di Castello, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Tifernum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: The name likely [TI, p. 61-62] derives as a formation *tibher-no- from the Umbrian name of the Tiberis fl. (Latium), showing the typical Eastern Italic (Umbrian) phonetic change *bh>f.
Trebiae
- Place: Trevi, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Trebiae (Plin., inscr.) Treviae (Burd.)
- Etymology: Clearly related to Oscan triibum (*treb-) 'house, building', Umbrian tremnu (*treb-no-) 'tabernaculo', Latin trabs, all from the IE root *treb- 'building, dwelling' [DNGI, p. 539]. The name can be compared with the diminutive form Trebula, for which see under Trebula (Samnium).
Tuder
- Place: Todi, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Tuder (Ptol., Plin., Sil., Peut., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The place-name is the Umbrian appellative tuder 'border', from which Etruscan tular 'border' likely derives (and not vice versa, as stated in [DNGI, p. 527]). The meaning of the placename could have been that of 'edge of a hill'. This appellative has the same origin as the Latin tundo, -ere 'to thrust', from the IE root *(s)teu- 'to push, hit'.
Urvinum Hortense
- Place: Collemancio di Cannara, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Urvinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown.
Vettona
- Place: Bettona, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Vettona (Plin.) Vetona (Peut., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Usually the town is considered an Etruscan foundation on the Umbrian side of the Tiber river, and for the place-name an Etruscan etymology is searched, like the personal name vetu, corresponding to latin Vettonius [DNGI, p. 50].
Galli
Fanum Fortunae
- Place: Fano, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Fanum Fortunae (Ptol., Plin., Caes.) Fanum (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The name is explained from a 'temple of Fortune' existing in this place, named after Latin fanum 'temple'.
Forum Sempronii
- Place: San Martino del Piano di Fossombrone, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Forum Sempronii (Ptol., Plin., Peut.) Forum Simphronii (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The name is the Latin forum 'marketplace' and took the second part from C. Sempronius Gracchus.
Isaurus fl., Pisaurum
- Place: river Foglia (Isaurus fl.), Pesaro (Pisaurum), province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: *Isaurus fl. (from an inscription) Pisaurum (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Mel., Peut.)
- Etymology: The name of the old Umbrian town, later a Roman colony, is usually [DNGI, p. 379] explained as *epi-isaurum 'upon the Isaurus', from the IE preposition *epi 'at, by', as in Opitergium (Venetia), and the name of the river. This latter is likely a compound, from the IE root *eis- 'to move rapidly' and the IE root *auer- 'water, rain, flow', with the meaning of 'rapid stream'. Both the compound parts have counterparts in the same area: see Aesis fl. and Metaurus fl. It is disputed if in the form Isairon found in the Novilara iscription, the name of the river should be recongnized.
Metaurus fl.
- Place: river Metauro, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Metaurus fl. (Plin., Sil.) Mataurus fl. (Peut.)
- Etymology: The name of the river is explained in [DNGI, p. 299] from the same stem *mat-, alternating with *met- as in Matilica. But the name can be instead compared for the first part with Metaurus fl. (Bruttium), Metapontum (Lucania), all from the IE extension *met(a)- of the root *me- 'in the middle of, by, around, with' (Pokorny). The second part is likely an hydronym, and in fact Pokorny proposes a derivation from the IE root *auer- 'water, rain, flow'. Summarizing, the name is built as *met-aur- 'river in the middle'.
Mevaniola
- Place: Pianetto di Galeata, province Forlí, region Emilia-Romagna, Italy
- Name: Mevaniola (Plin.)
- Etymology: Traditionally, the name is explained with the fact that the settlement was founded by Umbrians coming from Mevania. Then Mevaniola is 'the little Mevania'.
Ostra
- Place: Muracce di Ostra Vetere, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Ostra (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name is certainly from an O-language (Italic, Celtic) and has not strict counterparts.
Pitinum Mergens
- Place: close to Acqualagna, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Pitinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: See below under Pitinum Pisaurense.
Pitinum Pisaurense
- Place: Pitino di Macerata Feltria, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Pitinum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Temptatively, the name may be derived from an extension *peit- of the IE root *pei- 'fat, milk', with the possible meaning of 'wet field, grass', from which also Latin pituita. The name has an exact counterpart in Pitinum (Samnium), between the lands of the Sabini and of the Vestini.
Sarsina
- Place: Sarsina, province Forlí-Cesena, region Emilia-Romagna, Italy
- Name: Sarsina (Plin.) Bobium (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The place-name has an exact counterpart in the Umbrian verb sarsite (s<*ç<*k), corresponding to Latin sarcite, from sarcio, -ire 'to remake, repair'. These both derive from the IE root *serk- 'hedge, to fence'. Probably the village arised from a refuge for herdsmen. The late name Bobium can be compared with Bobium (Liguria).
Sena Gallica
- Place: Senigallia, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Sena Gallica (Ptol.) Senagallia (Plin., Peut.) Senogallia (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Usually, it is derived from Gaulish sena 'the old (city)' (UTET), from the IE root *sen- 'old', to which is related also Latin senex.
Sentinum
- Place: umbrian fortress and roman town at Civitalba and Santa Lucia di Sassoferrato, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Sentinum (Ptol., Plin., Liv.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Possibly related to the IE root *sent- 'to take a direction, go', and explained as a Gaulish word *sent- (Anreiter) with the meaning of 'path, route'. The place is close to the Roman via Flaminia, that could have been an important way of communication also during pre-Roman times.
Sestinum
- Place: Sestino, province Arezzo, region Toscana, Italy
- Name: Sestinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: According to [DNGI, p. 499], the name derives from an Etruscan personal name *Sesta, related to Latin Sest(i)us. But the name can be likely related to Umbrian sestu 'I lay', related to Latin sisto, from a reduplication form *si-sta- of the IE root *sta- 'to stand'. Thus, an (Eastern) Italic origin of the place-name is very likely.
Suasa
- Place: Pian Volpello di Castelleone di Suasa, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Suasa (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Possibly, the name is related to some IE root *seu-, for example *seu- 'juice, liquid' as an original river-name. The root is in the zero-grade or O-grade (hence *Sovasa). Compare it with Suana (Etruria).
Tifernum Metaurense
- Place: Sant'Angelo in Vado, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Tifernum (Plin.)
- Etymology: Usually derived from the IE root *tibh- 'to melt'. The name may be explained from a S-stem *tibhes- 'river, marsh', that has a Latin counterpart in Tiber fl., from which name also comes Tifernum Tiberinum. The feature *bh>f is tipically Umbrian, and to the related Oscan language belongs the place-name Tifernum (Samnium). Related to the name, outside of Italy, are also Tibesis fl. (Dacia), Tibina fl. (Sarmatia).
Tuficum
- Place: Borgo Tufico di Fabriano, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Tuficum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: The place-name can likely derive from an Umbrian appellative related to oscan *tufus, from which came the Latin tofus 'tufo stone'.
Urvinum Metaurense
- Place: Urbino, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Urvinum (Plin.) Urbinum (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Unknown.
not identified
Acerrae
- Place: not identified
- Name: Acerrae (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name has an exact counterpart in Acerrae (Campania). Both may be derived from the IE root *akwa- 'water, river' [DNGI, p. 2], with a development *kw>k that is certainly non-Umbrian. Another, more traditional interpretation of the names is from Latin (but possibly an Etruscan appellative) acerra 'casket for incense'.
Casuentum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Casuentum from Casuentillani (Plin.)
- Etymology: Like Casuentus fl. (Lucania), in the same Italic domain, the name is built of a stem *kas-, possibly from the IE root *k'as- 'gray' (compare with Paelignan casnar 'senex'), and a second part that may be the IE *-uent- 'rich of', or a participe marker. In this case, the place-names can be explained from some Osco-Umbrian appellative *kas(u)o- indicating something 'gray' or 'pale', or it can be the participe of an adjective meaning 'shining'.
Crinivolum
- Place: not identified
- Name: Crinivolum (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name is built of a first term crina- that may be (or at least related to) a Gaulish *crina (Anreiter) 'mountain crack', from the IE root *(s)k(e)rei- 'to cut, separate'. It is not known whether this place was in the Ager Gallicus or in the Umbria proprie dicta.
Dola
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Dola from Dolates (Plin.)
- Etymology: The place-name is likely an appellative meaning 'cavity', from the IE root *dhel- 'curve, hollow'. The language of the appellative is an O-language, in which *dh>d (and not *dh>f as in Italic). This language is likely the Gaulish, to which the Welsh dol 'valley' can be compared.
Paesinum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Paesinum from Paesinates (Plin.)
- Etymology: In this place-name, a root *pais- can be recognized, which according to [Villar] is an A-grade form of the IE root *k'ueis-, an extension of *k'uei- 'shining, white'. The phonetic feature *kw>p is a distinguished trait of the Eastern Italic (Umbrian), but the ablaut form in a is not clear.
Vindinum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Vindinum from Vindinates (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name is likely of Gaulish origin, from vindos 'white' - compare e.g. with Vindomagus (Narbonensis) -, that is a word related to latin video, -ere 'to see', from the IE root *ueid- 'to see, to know'. It is thus probable that the place was situated in the Ager Gallicus or close to the Gaulish-influenced area of the Picenum.
Visuentum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Visuentum from Visuentani (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name should refer originally to a river or stream, since it is likely that the first part vis- is the IE root *ueis- 'to flow, poison' in its zero-grade form. The second part is clearly the IE *-uent- 'rich of', so that the meaning of the place-name is 'rich of veins (of water)'. Nothing can be said about the attribution of the name.
Conclusions
This region is recorded to have been inhabited by the Umbrians, together with some other areas later lost to the Etruscans and Gauls. The language of the Umbrians is that of the Tabulae Iguvinae, and belongs to the Eastern Italic (or Osco-Umbrian) group. The names that show the typical traits of this language group (initial f from the IE aspirated voiced stops, development of the labiovelars into labials, vowelization of the sonants, etc.) are spread across the whole region.
A Gaulish toponymy is also certain and well distributed especially in the Ager Gallicus, as it is obvious, but also south of it at the western borders of Picenum. This Gaulish presence is surprising but appears rather clearly from several place-names perfectly fitted by Gaulish appellatives.
- Place: San Damiano di San Gemini, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Carsulae (Plin., Tac.) Carsuli (Strab.)
- Etymology: The name is certainly related to Carseoli (Samnium), in the same Italic domain. Some substratists [DNGI, p. 105], have derived these names from a "mediterranean" stem *cars- 'stony terrain'. But possibly the origin of this series is the IE root *kars- 'to scratch, rub'. Compare, outside of Italy, with Carsium (Dacia).
*Clasius fl.
- Place: river Chiascio, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: *Clasius fl. (inferred from the survival of the name)
- Etymology: According to the hydronym is related to the IE root *klad- 'to hit, cut down', with a meaning similar to Welsh cladd 'ditch'. In Umbrian the cluster *dy shifted to s, like in (Sabine) Clauso for Claudio-. Still today, the Umbrian dialectal chiascio means 'stream, pit'.
Clitumnus fl.
- Place: Clitunno springs, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Clitumnus fl. (Plin., Sil., Hor.)
- Etymology: The name cannot be separated from those of Cliternum (Samnium) and Cliternia (Apulia), in the same Italic domain. Likely, they may be derived from the IE root *k'lei- 'to tip, incline, lean'. In particular, the name of the small stream can be explained from a participe *k'li-to- 'leaned'.
Cursula
- Place: traditionally identified with Civita di Cascia, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Cursula (Dion.)
- Etymology: The place-name can be temptatively derived from a stream's name Cursula explained as 'the small running (stream)', from the IE root *k'ers- 'to run'. The development *r>ur is typically Italic.
Forum Flaminii
- Place: San Giovanni Profiamma di Foligno, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Forum Flaminii (Ptol., Plin., Burd.)
- Etymology: It is a Roman foundation. The name is the Latin forum 'marketplace', specified by the name of the road Flaminia that passed through this town.
Fulginiae
- Place: close to Foligno, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Fulginiae (Plin., Burd.) Fulginia (Sil.)
- Etymology: The name is related to the Roman personal name Fulginius according to [DNGI, p. 205], but more likely it was the personal name to have derived from the placemane. Thus the name can be possibly related to Latin fulcio, -ire 'to truncate', rather than to fulgo 'to flash', and to from the IE root *bhelg'- 'plank, timber'. The site of the ancient town was earlier covered with trees; after they were truncated, the place took its name from the 'timbers' remaining. The name is certainly Italic for the development *bh>f and of the sonant l (from the root at zero-grade) into ul. Likely, it is Umbrian (Eastern Italic) but a Western Italic origin is not impossible.
Helvillum
- Place: area of Fossato di Vico, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Helvillum (Peut.)
- Etymology: The name is related to Helvinus fl. (Picenum) and can be compared with (Old) Latin helvus 'yellowish', that keeps the Italic distinctive development *g'h>h, from the IE root *g'hel-. Thus, the name should have meant 'the yellow (rock, soil)' and can be attributed to the Umbrian language.
Hispellum
- Place: Spello, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Hispellum (Ptol., Plin., Sil.)
- Etymology: The name may be related to Latin hispidus 'rough', a loanword from some Eastern Italic language, from the IE root *g'hers- 'rigid' with a -kw- extension. The meaning of the placename could have been 'rough land' or simply 'land', as the related Greek word chersos.
Iguvium
- Place: Gubbio, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Iguvium (Ptol., Sil.) Iguium (Plin.)
- Etymology: The suffix -uvium is rather clear, but the stem, consisting of only two phonemes, is considered obscure [DNGI, p. 243-244]. One hypothesis presented there is that the earlier form of the name was *Pikuvium '(town, tribe) of the woodpecker', that became Iguvium after loss of initial p, a development that is typical of Gaulish. But actually the stem may be compared with Igilium i., and attributed to some pre-Etruscan, pre-Umbrian (as an Eastern Italic language) stratum.
Interamna Nahars
- Place: Terni, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Interamna (Plin., Peut., Burd.)
- Etymology: Traditionally [DNGI, p. 523], it is explained, like the other Interamnia (Latium) and Interamnia Praetutiorum (Picenum), from a Latin inter amnes 'between the rivers'. The scholar De Giovanni proposed instead a derivation from an Italic word related to the Umbrian tremnu (*treb-no-) 'tabernaculo'.
Matilica
- Place: Matelica, province Macerata, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Matilica (Plin.)
- Etymology: The stem *mat- should belong to a serie including in Italy Mateola (Apulia) and other place-names in the Celtic domain. These names may be related to Latin mateola 'tool to stave in the earth', from an IE root *mat- 'hack, flapper'. Therefore, the name may have originated from some agricultural term.
Mevania
- Place: Bevagna, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Mevania (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Sil., Peut.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name has an almost exact counterpart in Mevaniola, in a more northern area. A relationship with the Oscan *mefia 'middle' has been proposed and explained as an Umbrian appellative. But the existence of the same name in a clearly non-Umbrian area (and of course the difficulties in the development f>v) make this hypothesis hard to support. Instead, a derivation from the IE root *meu- 'wet, dirt, to wash' is very likely.
Nar fl.
- Place: river Nera, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Nar fl. (Plin., Sil.)
- Etymology: The name is usually explained from an hydronymic stem *ner-/nar- [DNGI, p. 338] to which many river-names are related (see Naronus fl.). According to Pokorny, all these river-names are derived from the IE root *ner- 'to conceal, cover, hiding place, hollow'. But in this case the ablaut form nar- looks strange and it can only be explained from an A-language or from a particular development of the sonant r.
Nequinum, Narnia
- Place: Narni, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Nequinum (Plin., Liv., Hor.) Narnia (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Sil., Burd.)
- Etymology: Unknown. For the presence of q the name can hardly be of Umbrian (Eastern Italic) origin. The town took the name Narnia when it became a Roman colony (before 299 b.C.). This second name derives from that of the river Nar fl.
Nuceria Camellaria
- Place: Nocera Umbra, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Nuceria (Ptol., Plin.) Nuceria Camellaria (Peut.) Noceria (Burd.)
- Etymology: According to the explaination first given by Devoto [TI, p. 67], this name and the equivalent Nuceria (Campania) reflect the Osco-Umbrian form *noukria 'the new (town)', derived from an extension (or a variant) *nouk- of the IE root *neu- 'new'. But in Pokorny there is no trace of such an extension. Thus the right form could have been a compound *neu-okri-ya 'the new fortress'. Alternatively, a different root *neuk- 'dark, indistinct' could be invoked, with the root at the zero-grade. A second Nuceria, called Favonensis has to be placed in Umbria, according to Pliny.
Ocriculum
- Place: Otricoli, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Ocriculum (Ptol., Plin., Liv.) Ucriculum (Burd.)
- Etymology: Usually [TI, p. 62; DNGI, p. 360] explained as 'the little rock' from an Umbrian word ocar '(stony) mount' related to Old Latin ocris 'mount'. These are from the variant *ok'ri- of the IE root *ak'- 'sharp'. Compare with Interocrium (Samnium)
Plestia
- Place: Pistia di Serravalle di Chienti, province Macerata, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Plestia (Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Compare with Plestina (Samnium).
Spoletium
- Place: Spoleto, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Spoletium (Ptol., Plin., Paul. Diac.) Spolitium (Burd.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name is certainly due to an O-language (possibly, Eastern Italic that is Umbrian). Temptatively, it can be related to the IE root *(s)pel- 'to split, cut off', with a formant t or a suffix -eto-.
Suillum
- Place: Villa Scirca di Sigillo, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: *Suillum from Suillates (Plin.)
- Etymology: From some information found in the web, possibly the scholar Devoto proposed an earlier form *Sugillum for the place-name, from whence the tribe-name (of the Umbrians) Su(g)illates. The loss of intervocalic g would be, according to this source, typical of the Umbrian language. But the name can be explained as a diminutive *suid-lo- from the IE root *sueid- 'to shine' and interpreted as a 'small clearance' in the plain in which the Umbrian village was built.
Tadinum
- Place: close to Gualdo Tadino, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: *Tadinum from Tadinates (Plin.) Umbrian Tarsina (*Tadina) (inscr.)
- Etymology: Unknown [TI, p. 72]. Possibly, the name has some relationship with a tribe name Tadiates mentioned by Pliny for the Samnium region, in the same Eastern Italic (Osco-Umbrian) domain.
Tifernum Tiberinum
- Place: Cittŕ di Castello, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Tifernum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: The name likely [TI, p. 61-62] derives as a formation *tibher-no- from the Umbrian name of the Tiberis fl. (Latium), showing the typical Eastern Italic (Umbrian) phonetic change *bh>f.
Trebiae
- Place: Trevi, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Trebiae (Plin., inscr.) Treviae (Burd.)
- Etymology: Clearly related to Oscan triibum (*treb-) 'house, building', Umbrian tremnu (*treb-no-) 'tabernaculo', Latin trabs, all from the IE root *treb- 'building, dwelling' [DNGI, p. 539]. The name can be compared with the diminutive form Trebula, for which see under Trebula (Samnium).
Tuder
- Place: Todi, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Tuder (Ptol., Plin., Sil., Peut., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The place-name is the Umbrian appellative tuder 'border', from which Etruscan tular 'border' likely derives (and not vice versa, as stated in [DNGI, p. 527]). The meaning of the placename could have been that of 'edge of a hill'. This appellative has the same origin as the Latin tundo, -ere 'to thrust', from the IE root *(s)teu- 'to push, hit'.
Urvinum Hortense
- Place: Collemancio di Cannara, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Urvinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown.
Vettona
- Place: Bettona, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Vettona (Plin.) Vetona (Peut., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Usually the town is considered an Etruscan foundation on the Umbrian side of the Tiber river, and for the place-name an Etruscan etymology is searched, like the personal name vetu, corresponding to latin Vettonius [DNGI, p. 50].
Galli
Fanum Fortunae
- Place: Fano, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Fanum Fortunae (Ptol., Plin., Caes.) Fanum (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The name is explained from a 'temple of Fortune' existing in this place, named after Latin fanum 'temple'.
Forum Sempronii
- Place: San Martino del Piano di Fossombrone, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Forum Sempronii (Ptol., Plin., Peut.) Forum Simphronii (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The name is the Latin forum 'marketplace' and took the second part from C. Sempronius Gracchus.
Isaurus fl., Pisaurum
- Place: river Foglia (Isaurus fl.), Pesaro (Pisaurum), province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: *Isaurus fl. (from an inscription) Pisaurum (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Mel., Peut.)
- Etymology: The name of the old Umbrian town, later a Roman colony, is usually [DNGI, p. 379] explained as *epi-isaurum 'upon the Isaurus', from the IE preposition *epi 'at, by', as in Opitergium (Venetia), and the name of the river. This latter is likely a compound, from the IE root *eis- 'to move rapidly' and the IE root *auer- 'water, rain, flow', with the meaning of 'rapid stream'. Both the compound parts have counterparts in the same area: see Aesis fl. and Metaurus fl. It is disputed if in the form Isairon found in the Novilara iscription, the name of the river should be recongnized.
Metaurus fl.
- Place: river Metauro, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Metaurus fl. (Plin., Sil.) Mataurus fl. (Peut.)
- Etymology: The name of the river is explained in [DNGI, p. 299] from the same stem *mat-, alternating with *met- as in Matilica. But the name can be instead compared for the first part with Metaurus fl. (Bruttium), Metapontum (Lucania), all from the IE extension *met(a)- of the root *me- 'in the middle of, by, around, with' (Pokorny). The second part is likely an hydronym, and in fact Pokorny proposes a derivation from the IE root *auer- 'water, rain, flow'. Summarizing, the name is built as *met-aur- 'river in the middle'.
Mevaniola
- Place: Pianetto di Galeata, province Forlí, region Emilia-Romagna, Italy
- Name: Mevaniola (Plin.)
- Etymology: Traditionally, the name is explained with the fact that the settlement was founded by Umbrians coming from Mevania. Then Mevaniola is 'the little Mevania'.
Ostra
- Place: Muracce di Ostra Vetere, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Ostra (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name is certainly from an O-language (Italic, Celtic) and has not strict counterparts.
Pitinum Mergens
- Place: close to Acqualagna, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Pitinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: See below under Pitinum Pisaurense.
Pitinum Pisaurense
- Place: Pitino di Macerata Feltria, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Pitinum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Temptatively, the name may be derived from an extension *peit- of the IE root *pei- 'fat, milk', with the possible meaning of 'wet field, grass', from which also Latin pituita. The name has an exact counterpart in Pitinum (Samnium), between the lands of the Sabini and of the Vestini.
Sarsina
- Place: Sarsina, province Forlí-Cesena, region Emilia-Romagna, Italy
- Name: Sarsina (Plin.) Bobium (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The place-name has an exact counterpart in the Umbrian verb sarsite (s<*ç<*k), corresponding to Latin sarcite, from sarcio, -ire 'to remake, repair'. These both derive from the IE root *serk- 'hedge, to fence'. Probably the village arised from a refuge for herdsmen. The late name Bobium can be compared with Bobium (Liguria).
Sena Gallica
- Place: Senigallia, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Sena Gallica (Ptol.) Senagallia (Plin., Peut.) Senogallia (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Usually, it is derived from Gaulish sena 'the old (city)' (UTET), from the IE root *sen- 'old', to which is related also Latin senex.
Sentinum
- Place: umbrian fortress and roman town at Civitalba and Santa Lucia di Sassoferrato, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Sentinum (Ptol., Plin., Liv.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Possibly related to the IE root *sent- 'to take a direction, go', and explained as a Gaulish word *sent- (Anreiter) with the meaning of 'path, route'. The place is close to the Roman via Flaminia, that could have been an important way of communication also during pre-Roman times.
Sestinum
- Place: Sestino, province Arezzo, region Toscana, Italy
- Name: Sestinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: According to [DNGI, p. 499], the name derives from an Etruscan personal name *Sesta, related to Latin Sest(i)us. But the name can be likely related to Umbrian sestu 'I lay', related to Latin sisto, from a reduplication form *si-sta- of the IE root *sta- 'to stand'. Thus, an (Eastern) Italic origin of the place-name is very likely.
Suasa
- Place: Pian Volpello di Castelleone di Suasa, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Suasa (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Possibly, the name is related to some IE root *seu-, for example *seu- 'juice, liquid' as an original river-name. The root is in the zero-grade or O-grade (hence *Sovasa). Compare it with Suana (Etruria).
Tifernum Metaurense
- Place: Sant'Angelo in Vado, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Tifernum (Plin.)
- Etymology: Usually derived from the IE root *tibh- 'to melt'. The name may be explained from a S-stem *tibhes- 'river, marsh', that has a Latin counterpart in Tiber fl., from which name also comes Tifernum Tiberinum. The feature *bh>f is tipically Umbrian, and to the related Oscan language belongs the place-name Tifernum (Samnium). Related to the name, outside of Italy, are also Tibesis fl. (Dacia), Tibina fl. (Sarmatia).
Tuficum
- Place: Borgo Tufico di Fabriano, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Tuficum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: The place-name can likely derive from an Umbrian appellative related to oscan *tufus, from which came the Latin tofus 'tufo stone'.
Urvinum Metaurense
- Place: Urbino, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Urvinum (Plin.) Urbinum (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Unknown.
not identified
Acerrae
- Place: not identified
- Name: Acerrae (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name has an exact counterpart in Acerrae (Campania). Both may be derived from the IE root *akwa- 'water, river' [DNGI, p. 2], with a development *kw>k that is certainly non-Umbrian. Another, more traditional interpretation of the names is from Latin (but possibly an Etruscan appellative) acerra 'casket for incense'.
Casuentum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Casuentum from Casuentillani (Plin.)
- Etymology: Like Casuentus fl. (Lucania), in the same Italic domain, the name is built of a stem *kas-, possibly from the IE root *k'as- 'gray' (compare with Paelignan casnar 'senex'), and a second part that may be the IE *-uent- 'rich of', or a participe marker. In this case, the place-names can be explained from some Osco-Umbrian appellative *kas(u)o- indicating something 'gray' or 'pale', or it can be the participe of an adjective meaning 'shining'.
Crinivolum
- Place: not identified
- Name: Crinivolum (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name is built of a first term crina- that may be (or at least related to) a Gaulish *crina (Anreiter) 'mountain crack', from the IE root *(s)k(e)rei- 'to cut, separate'. It is not known whether this place was in the Ager Gallicus or in the Umbria proprie dicta.
Dola
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Dola from Dolates (Plin.)
- Etymology: The place-name is likely an appellative meaning 'cavity', from the IE root *dhel- 'curve, hollow'. The language of the appellative is an O-language, in which *dh>d (and not *dh>f as in Italic). This language is likely the Gaulish, to which the Welsh dol 'valley' can be compared.
Paesinum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Paesinum from Paesinates (Plin.)
- Etymology: In this place-name, a root *pais- can be recognized, which according to [Villar] is an A-grade form of the IE root *k'ueis-, an extension of *k'uei- 'shining, white'. The phonetic feature *kw>p is a distinguished trait of the Eastern Italic (Umbrian), but the ablaut form in a is not clear.
Vindinum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Vindinum from Vindinates (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name is likely of Gaulish origin, from vindos 'white' - compare e.g. with Vindomagus (Narbonensis) -, that is a word related to latin video, -ere 'to see', from the IE root *ueid- 'to see, to know'. It is thus probable that the place was situated in the Ager Gallicus or close to the Gaulish-influenced area of the Picenum.
Visuentum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Visuentum from Visuentani (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name should refer originally to a river or stream, since it is likely that the first part vis- is the IE root *ueis- 'to flow, poison' in its zero-grade form. The second part is clearly the IE *-uent- 'rich of', so that the meaning of the place-name is 'rich of veins (of water)'. Nothing can be said about the attribution of the name.
Conclusions
This region is recorded to have been inhabited by the Umbrians, together with some other areas later lost to the Etruscans and Gauls. The language of the Umbrians is that of the Tabulae Iguvinae, and belongs to the Eastern Italic (or Osco-Umbrian) group. The names that show the typical traits of this language group (initial f from the IE aspirated voiced stops, development of the labiovelars into labials, vowelization of the sonants, etc.) are spread across the whole region.
A Gaulish toponymy is also certain and well distributed especially in the Ager Gallicus, as it is obvious, but also south of it at the western borders of Picenum. This Gaulish presence is surprising but appears rather clearly from several place-names perfectly fitted by Gaulish appellatives.
- Place: close to Foligno, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Fulginiae (Plin., Burd.) Fulginia (Sil.)
- Etymology: The name is related to the Roman personal name Fulginius according to [DNGI, p. 205], but more likely it was the personal name to have derived from the placemane. Thus the name can be possibly related to Latin fulcio, -ire 'to truncate', rather than to fulgo 'to flash', and to from the IE root *bhelg'- 'plank, timber'. The site of the ancient town was earlier covered with trees; after they were truncated, the place took its name from the 'timbers' remaining. The name is certainly Italic for the development *bh>f and of the sonant l (from the root at zero-grade) into ul. Likely, it is Umbrian (Eastern Italic) but a Western Italic origin is not impossible.
Helvillum
- Place: area of Fossato di Vico, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Helvillum (Peut.)
- Etymology: The name is related to Helvinus fl. (Picenum) and can be compared with (Old) Latin helvus 'yellowish', that keeps the Italic distinctive development *g'h>h, from the IE root *g'hel-. Thus, the name should have meant 'the yellow (rock, soil)' and can be attributed to the Umbrian language.
Hispellum
- Place: Spello, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Hispellum (Ptol., Plin., Sil.)
- Etymology: The name may be related to Latin hispidus 'rough', a loanword from some Eastern Italic language, from the IE root *g'hers- 'rigid' with a -kw- extension. The meaning of the placename could have been 'rough land' or simply 'land', as the related Greek word chersos.
Iguvium
- Place: Gubbio, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Iguvium (Ptol., Sil.) Iguium (Plin.)
- Etymology: The suffix -uvium is rather clear, but the stem, consisting of only two phonemes, is considered obscure [DNGI, p. 243-244]. One hypothesis presented there is that the earlier form of the name was *Pikuvium '(town, tribe) of the woodpecker', that became Iguvium after loss of initial p, a development that is typical of Gaulish. But actually the stem may be compared with Igilium i., and attributed to some pre-Etruscan, pre-Umbrian (as an Eastern Italic language) stratum.
Interamna Nahars
- Place: Terni, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Interamna (Plin., Peut., Burd.)
- Etymology: Traditionally [DNGI, p. 523], it is explained, like the other Interamnia (Latium) and Interamnia Praetutiorum (Picenum), from a Latin inter amnes 'between the rivers'. The scholar De Giovanni proposed instead a derivation from an Italic word related to the Umbrian tremnu (*treb-no-) 'tabernaculo'.
Matilica
- Place: Matelica, province Macerata, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Matilica (Plin.)
- Etymology: The stem *mat- should belong to a serie including in Italy Mateola (Apulia) and other place-names in the Celtic domain. These names may be related to Latin mateola 'tool to stave in the earth', from an IE root *mat- 'hack, flapper'. Therefore, the name may have originated from some agricultural term.
Mevania
- Place: Bevagna, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Mevania (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Sil., Peut.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name has an almost exact counterpart in Mevaniola, in a more northern area. A relationship with the Oscan *mefia 'middle' has been proposed and explained as an Umbrian appellative. But the existence of the same name in a clearly non-Umbrian area (and of course the difficulties in the development f>v) make this hypothesis hard to support. Instead, a derivation from the IE root *meu- 'wet, dirt, to wash' is very likely.
Nar fl.
- Place: river Nera, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Nar fl. (Plin., Sil.)
- Etymology: The name is usually explained from an hydronymic stem *ner-/nar- [DNGI, p. 338] to which many river-names are related (see Naronus fl.). According to Pokorny, all these river-names are derived from the IE root *ner- 'to conceal, cover, hiding place, hollow'. But in this case the ablaut form nar- looks strange and it can only be explained from an A-language or from a particular development of the sonant r.
Nequinum, Narnia
- Place: Narni, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Nequinum (Plin., Liv., Hor.) Narnia (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Sil., Burd.)
- Etymology: Unknown. For the presence of q the name can hardly be of Umbrian (Eastern Italic) origin. The town took the name Narnia when it became a Roman colony (before 299 b.C.). This second name derives from that of the river Nar fl.
Nuceria Camellaria
- Place: Nocera Umbra, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Nuceria (Ptol., Plin.) Nuceria Camellaria (Peut.) Noceria (Burd.)
- Etymology: According to the explaination first given by Devoto [TI, p. 67], this name and the equivalent Nuceria (Campania) reflect the Osco-Umbrian form *noukria 'the new (town)', derived from an extension (or a variant) *nouk- of the IE root *neu- 'new'. But in Pokorny there is no trace of such an extension. Thus the right form could have been a compound *neu-okri-ya 'the new fortress'. Alternatively, a different root *neuk- 'dark, indistinct' could be invoked, with the root at the zero-grade. A second Nuceria, called Favonensis has to be placed in Umbria, according to Pliny.
Ocriculum
- Place: Otricoli, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Ocriculum (Ptol., Plin., Liv.) Ucriculum (Burd.)
- Etymology: Usually [TI, p. 62; DNGI, p. 360] explained as 'the little rock' from an Umbrian word ocar '(stony) mount' related to Old Latin ocris 'mount'. These are from the variant *ok'ri- of the IE root *ak'- 'sharp'. Compare with Interocrium (Samnium)
Plestia
- Place: Pistia di Serravalle di Chienti, province Macerata, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Plestia (Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Compare with Plestina (Samnium).
Spoletium
- Place: Spoleto, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Spoletium (Ptol., Plin., Paul. Diac.) Spolitium (Burd.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name is certainly due to an O-language (possibly, Eastern Italic that is Umbrian). Temptatively, it can be related to the IE root *(s)pel- 'to split, cut off', with a formant t or a suffix -eto-.
Suillum
- Place: Villa Scirca di Sigillo, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: *Suillum from Suillates (Plin.)
- Etymology: From some information found in the web, possibly the scholar Devoto proposed an earlier form *Sugillum for the place-name, from whence the tribe-name (of the Umbrians) Su(g)illates. The loss of intervocalic g would be, according to this source, typical of the Umbrian language. But the name can be explained as a diminutive *suid-lo- from the IE root *sueid- 'to shine' and interpreted as a 'small clearance' in the plain in which the Umbrian village was built.
Tadinum
- Place: close to Gualdo Tadino, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: *Tadinum from Tadinates (Plin.) Umbrian Tarsina (*Tadina) (inscr.)
- Etymology: Unknown [TI, p. 72]. Possibly, the name has some relationship with a tribe name Tadiates mentioned by Pliny for the Samnium region, in the same Eastern Italic (Osco-Umbrian) domain.
Tifernum Tiberinum
- Place: Cittŕ di Castello, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Tifernum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: The name likely [TI, p. 61-62] derives as a formation *tibher-no- from the Umbrian name of the Tiberis fl. (Latium), showing the typical Eastern Italic (Umbrian) phonetic change *bh>f.
Trebiae
- Place: Trevi, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Trebiae (Plin., inscr.) Treviae (Burd.)
- Etymology: Clearly related to Oscan triibum (*treb-) 'house, building', Umbrian tremnu (*treb-no-) 'tabernaculo', Latin trabs, all from the IE root *treb- 'building, dwelling' [DNGI, p. 539]. The name can be compared with the diminutive form Trebula, for which see under Trebula (Samnium).
Tuder
- Place: Todi, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Tuder (Ptol., Plin., Sil., Peut., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The place-name is the Umbrian appellative tuder 'border', from which Etruscan tular 'border' likely derives (and not vice versa, as stated in [DNGI, p. 527]). The meaning of the placename could have been that of 'edge of a hill'. This appellative has the same origin as the Latin tundo, -ere 'to thrust', from the IE root *(s)teu- 'to push, hit'.
Urvinum Hortense
- Place: Collemancio di Cannara, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Urvinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown.
Vettona
- Place: Bettona, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Vettona (Plin.) Vetona (Peut., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Usually the town is considered an Etruscan foundation on the Umbrian side of the Tiber river, and for the place-name an Etruscan etymology is searched, like the personal name vetu, corresponding to latin Vettonius [DNGI, p. 50].
Galli
Fanum Fortunae
- Place: Fano, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Fanum Fortunae (Ptol., Plin., Caes.) Fanum (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The name is explained from a 'temple of Fortune' existing in this place, named after Latin fanum 'temple'.
Forum Sempronii
- Place: San Martino del Piano di Fossombrone, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Forum Sempronii (Ptol., Plin., Peut.) Forum Simphronii (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The name is the Latin forum 'marketplace' and took the second part from C. Sempronius Gracchus.
Isaurus fl., Pisaurum
- Place: river Foglia (Isaurus fl.), Pesaro (Pisaurum), province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: *Isaurus fl. (from an inscription) Pisaurum (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Mel., Peut.)
- Etymology: The name of the old Umbrian town, later a Roman colony, is usually [DNGI, p. 379] explained as *epi-isaurum 'upon the Isaurus', from the IE preposition *epi 'at, by', as in Opitergium (Venetia), and the name of the river. This latter is likely a compound, from the IE root *eis- 'to move rapidly' and the IE root *auer- 'water, rain, flow', with the meaning of 'rapid stream'. Both the compound parts have counterparts in the same area: see Aesis fl. and Metaurus fl. It is disputed if in the form Isairon found in the Novilara iscription, the name of the river should be recongnized.
Metaurus fl.
- Place: river Metauro, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Metaurus fl. (Plin., Sil.) Mataurus fl. (Peut.)
- Etymology: The name of the river is explained in [DNGI, p. 299] from the same stem *mat-, alternating with *met- as in Matilica. But the name can be instead compared for the first part with Metaurus fl. (Bruttium), Metapontum (Lucania), all from the IE extension *met(a)- of the root *me- 'in the middle of, by, around, with' (Pokorny). The second part is likely an hydronym, and in fact Pokorny proposes a derivation from the IE root *auer- 'water, rain, flow'. Summarizing, the name is built as *met-aur- 'river in the middle'.
Mevaniola
- Place: Pianetto di Galeata, province Forlí, region Emilia-Romagna, Italy
- Name: Mevaniola (Plin.)
- Etymology: Traditionally, the name is explained with the fact that the settlement was founded by Umbrians coming from Mevania. Then Mevaniola is 'the little Mevania'.
Ostra
- Place: Muracce di Ostra Vetere, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Ostra (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name is certainly from an O-language (Italic, Celtic) and has not strict counterparts.
Pitinum Mergens
- Place: close to Acqualagna, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Pitinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: See below under Pitinum Pisaurense.
Pitinum Pisaurense
- Place: Pitino di Macerata Feltria, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Pitinum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Temptatively, the name may be derived from an extension *peit- of the IE root *pei- 'fat, milk', with the possible meaning of 'wet field, grass', from which also Latin pituita. The name has an exact counterpart in Pitinum (Samnium), between the lands of the Sabini and of the Vestini.
Sarsina
- Place: Sarsina, province Forlí-Cesena, region Emilia-Romagna, Italy
- Name: Sarsina (Plin.) Bobium (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The place-name has an exact counterpart in the Umbrian verb sarsite (s<*ç<*k), corresponding to Latin sarcite, from sarcio, -ire 'to remake, repair'. These both derive from the IE root *serk- 'hedge, to fence'. Probably the village arised from a refuge for herdsmen. The late name Bobium can be compared with Bobium (Liguria).
Sena Gallica
- Place: Senigallia, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Sena Gallica (Ptol.) Senagallia (Plin., Peut.) Senogallia (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Usually, it is derived from Gaulish sena 'the old (city)' (UTET), from the IE root *sen- 'old', to which is related also Latin senex.
Sentinum
- Place: umbrian fortress and roman town at Civitalba and Santa Lucia di Sassoferrato, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Sentinum (Ptol., Plin., Liv.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Possibly related to the IE root *sent- 'to take a direction, go', and explained as a Gaulish word *sent- (Anreiter) with the meaning of 'path, route'. The place is close to the Roman via Flaminia, that could have been an important way of communication also during pre-Roman times.
Sestinum
- Place: Sestino, province Arezzo, region Toscana, Italy
- Name: Sestinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: According to [DNGI, p. 499], the name derives from an Etruscan personal name *Sesta, related to Latin Sest(i)us. But the name can be likely related to Umbrian sestu 'I lay', related to Latin sisto, from a reduplication form *si-sta- of the IE root *sta- 'to stand'. Thus, an (Eastern) Italic origin of the place-name is very likely.
Suasa
- Place: Pian Volpello di Castelleone di Suasa, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Suasa (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Possibly, the name is related to some IE root *seu-, for example *seu- 'juice, liquid' as an original river-name. The root is in the zero-grade or O-grade (hence *Sovasa). Compare it with Suana (Etruria).
Tifernum Metaurense
- Place: Sant'Angelo in Vado, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Tifernum (Plin.)
- Etymology: Usually derived from the IE root *tibh- 'to melt'. The name may be explained from a S-stem *tibhes- 'river, marsh', that has a Latin counterpart in Tiber fl., from which name also comes Tifernum Tiberinum. The feature *bh>f is tipically Umbrian, and to the related Oscan language belongs the place-name Tifernum (Samnium). Related to the name, outside of Italy, are also Tibesis fl. (Dacia), Tibina fl. (Sarmatia).
Tuficum
- Place: Borgo Tufico di Fabriano, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Tuficum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: The place-name can likely derive from an Umbrian appellative related to oscan *tufus, from which came the Latin tofus 'tufo stone'.
Urvinum Metaurense
- Place: Urbino, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Urvinum (Plin.) Urbinum (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Unknown.
not identified
Acerrae
- Place: not identified
- Name: Acerrae (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name has an exact counterpart in Acerrae (Campania). Both may be derived from the IE root *akwa- 'water, river' [DNGI, p. 2], with a development *kw>k that is certainly non-Umbrian. Another, more traditional interpretation of the names is from Latin (but possibly an Etruscan appellative) acerra 'casket for incense'.
Casuentum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Casuentum from Casuentillani (Plin.)
- Etymology: Like Casuentus fl. (Lucania), in the same Italic domain, the name is built of a stem *kas-, possibly from the IE root *k'as- 'gray' (compare with Paelignan casnar 'senex'), and a second part that may be the IE *-uent- 'rich of', or a participe marker. In this case, the place-names can be explained from some Osco-Umbrian appellative *kas(u)o- indicating something 'gray' or 'pale', or it can be the participe of an adjective meaning 'shining'.
Crinivolum
- Place: not identified
- Name: Crinivolum (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name is built of a first term crina- that may be (or at least related to) a Gaulish *crina (Anreiter) 'mountain crack', from the IE root *(s)k(e)rei- 'to cut, separate'. It is not known whether this place was in the Ager Gallicus or in the Umbria proprie dicta.
Dola
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Dola from Dolates (Plin.)
- Etymology: The place-name is likely an appellative meaning 'cavity', from the IE root *dhel- 'curve, hollow'. The language of the appellative is an O-language, in which *dh>d (and not *dh>f as in Italic). This language is likely the Gaulish, to which the Welsh dol 'valley' can be compared.
Paesinum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Paesinum from Paesinates (Plin.)
- Etymology: In this place-name, a root *pais- can be recognized, which according to [Villar] is an A-grade form of the IE root *k'ueis-, an extension of *k'uei- 'shining, white'. The phonetic feature *kw>p is a distinguished trait of the Eastern Italic (Umbrian), but the ablaut form in a is not clear.
Vindinum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Vindinum from Vindinates (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name is likely of Gaulish origin, from vindos 'white' - compare e.g. with Vindomagus (Narbonensis) -, that is a word related to latin video, -ere 'to see', from the IE root *ueid- 'to see, to know'. It is thus probable that the place was situated in the Ager Gallicus or close to the Gaulish-influenced area of the Picenum.
Visuentum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Visuentum from Visuentani (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name should refer originally to a river or stream, since it is likely that the first part vis- is the IE root *ueis- 'to flow, poison' in its zero-grade form. The second part is clearly the IE *-uent- 'rich of', so that the meaning of the place-name is 'rich of veins (of water)'. Nothing can be said about the attribution of the name.
Conclusions
This region is recorded to have been inhabited by the Umbrians, together with some other areas later lost to the Etruscans and Gauls. The language of the Umbrians is that of the Tabulae Iguvinae, and belongs to the Eastern Italic (or Osco-Umbrian) group. The names that show the typical traits of this language group (initial f from the IE aspirated voiced stops, development of the labiovelars into labials, vowelization of the sonants, etc.) are spread across the whole region.
A Gaulish toponymy is also certain and well distributed especially in the Ager Gallicus, as it is obvious, but also south of it at the western borders of Picenum. This Gaulish presence is surprising but appears rather clearly from several place-names perfectly fitted by Gaulish appellatives.
- Place: Matelica, province Macerata, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Matilica (Plin.)
- Etymology: The stem *mat- should belong to a serie including in Italy Mateola (Apulia) and other place-names in the Celtic domain. These names may be related to Latin mateola 'tool to stave in the earth', from an IE root *mat- 'hack, flapper'. Therefore, the name may have originated from some agricultural term.
- Place: Bevagna, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Mevania (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Sil., Peut.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name has an almost exact counterpart in Mevaniola, in a more northern area. A relationship with the Oscan *mefia 'middle' has been proposed and explained as an Umbrian appellative. But the existence of the same name in a clearly non-Umbrian area (and of course the difficulties in the development f>v) make this hypothesis hard to support. Instead, a derivation from the IE root *meu- 'wet, dirt, to wash' is very likely.
- Place: river Nera, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Nar fl. (Plin., Sil.)
- Etymology: The name is usually explained from an hydronymic stem *ner-/nar- [DNGI, p. 338] to which many river-names are related (see Naronus fl.). According to Pokorny, all these river-names are derived from the IE root *ner- 'to conceal, cover, hiding place, hollow'. But in this case the ablaut form nar- looks strange and it can only be explained from an A-language or from a particular development of the sonant r.
- Place: Narni, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Nequinum (Plin., Liv., Hor.) Narnia (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Sil., Burd.)
- Etymology: Unknown. For the presence of q the name can hardly be of Umbrian (Eastern Italic) origin. The town took the name Narnia when it became a Roman colony (before 299 b.C.). This second name derives from that of the river Nar fl.
- Place: Nocera Umbra, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Nuceria (Ptol., Plin.) Nuceria Camellaria (Peut.) Noceria (Burd.)
- Etymology: According to the explaination first given by Devoto [TI, p. 67], this name and the equivalent Nuceria (Campania) reflect the Osco-Umbrian form *noukria 'the new (town)', derived from an extension (or a variant) *nouk- of the IE root *neu- 'new'. But in Pokorny there is no trace of such an extension. Thus the right form could have been a compound *neu-okri-ya 'the new fortress'. Alternatively, a different root *neuk- 'dark, indistinct' could be invoked, with the root at the zero-grade. A second Nuceria, called Favonensis has to be placed in Umbria, according to Pliny.
- Place: Otricoli, province Terni, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Ocriculum (Ptol., Plin., Liv.) Ucriculum (Burd.)
- Etymology: Usually [TI, p. 62; DNGI, p. 360] explained as 'the little rock' from an Umbrian word ocar '(stony) mount' related to Old Latin ocris 'mount'. These are from the variant *ok'ri- of the IE root *ak'- 'sharp'. Compare with Interocrium (Samnium)
Plestia
- Place: Pistia di Serravalle di Chienti, province Macerata, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Plestia (Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Compare with Plestina (Samnium).
Spoletium
- Place: Spoleto, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Spoletium (Ptol., Plin., Paul. Diac.) Spolitium (Burd.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name is certainly due to an O-language (possibly, Eastern Italic that is Umbrian). Temptatively, it can be related to the IE root *(s)pel- 'to split, cut off', with a formant t or a suffix -eto-.
Suillum
- Place: Villa Scirca di Sigillo, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: *Suillum from Suillates (Plin.)
- Etymology: From some information found in the web, possibly the scholar Devoto proposed an earlier form *Sugillum for the place-name, from whence the tribe-name (of the Umbrians) Su(g)illates. The loss of intervocalic g would be, according to this source, typical of the Umbrian language. But the name can be explained as a diminutive *suid-lo- from the IE root *sueid- 'to shine' and interpreted as a 'small clearance' in the plain in which the Umbrian village was built.
Tadinum
- Place: close to Gualdo Tadino, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: *Tadinum from Tadinates (Plin.) Umbrian Tarsina (*Tadina) (inscr.)
- Etymology: Unknown [TI, p. 72]. Possibly, the name has some relationship with a tribe name Tadiates mentioned by Pliny for the Samnium region, in the same Eastern Italic (Osco-Umbrian) domain.
Tifernum Tiberinum
- Place: Cittŕ di Castello, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Tifernum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: The name likely [TI, p. 61-62] derives as a formation *tibher-no- from the Umbrian name of the Tiberis fl. (Latium), showing the typical Eastern Italic (Umbrian) phonetic change *bh>f.
Trebiae
- Place: Trevi, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Trebiae (Plin., inscr.) Treviae (Burd.)
- Etymology: Clearly related to Oscan triibum (*treb-) 'house, building', Umbrian tremnu (*treb-no-) 'tabernaculo', Latin trabs, all from the IE root *treb- 'building, dwelling' [DNGI, p. 539]. The name can be compared with the diminutive form Trebula, for which see under Trebula (Samnium).
Tuder
- Place: Todi, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Tuder (Ptol., Plin., Sil., Peut., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The place-name is the Umbrian appellative tuder 'border', from which Etruscan tular 'border' likely derives (and not vice versa, as stated in [DNGI, p. 527]). The meaning of the placename could have been that of 'edge of a hill'. This appellative has the same origin as the Latin tundo, -ere 'to thrust', from the IE root *(s)teu- 'to push, hit'.
Urvinum Hortense
- Place: Collemancio di Cannara, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Urvinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown.
Vettona
- Place: Bettona, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Vettona (Plin.) Vetona (Peut., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Usually the town is considered an Etruscan foundation on the Umbrian side of the Tiber river, and for the place-name an Etruscan etymology is searched, like the personal name vetu, corresponding to latin Vettonius [DNGI, p. 50].
Galli
Fanum Fortunae
- Place: Fano, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Fanum Fortunae (Ptol., Plin., Caes.) Fanum (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The name is explained from a 'temple of Fortune' existing in this place, named after Latin fanum 'temple'.
Forum Sempronii
- Place: San Martino del Piano di Fossombrone, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Forum Sempronii (Ptol., Plin., Peut.) Forum Simphronii (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The name is the Latin forum 'marketplace' and took the second part from C. Sempronius Gracchus.
Isaurus fl., Pisaurum
- Place: river Foglia (Isaurus fl.), Pesaro (Pisaurum), province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: *Isaurus fl. (from an inscription) Pisaurum (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Mel., Peut.)
- Etymology: The name of the old Umbrian town, later a Roman colony, is usually [DNGI, p. 379] explained as *epi-isaurum 'upon the Isaurus', from the IE preposition *epi 'at, by', as in Opitergium (Venetia), and the name of the river. This latter is likely a compound, from the IE root *eis- 'to move rapidly' and the IE root *auer- 'water, rain, flow', with the meaning of 'rapid stream'. Both the compound parts have counterparts in the same area: see Aesis fl. and Metaurus fl. It is disputed if in the form Isairon found in the Novilara iscription, the name of the river should be recongnized.
Metaurus fl.
- Place: river Metauro, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Metaurus fl. (Plin., Sil.) Mataurus fl. (Peut.)
- Etymology: The name of the river is explained in [DNGI, p. 299] from the same stem *mat-, alternating with *met- as in Matilica. But the name can be instead compared for the first part with Metaurus fl. (Bruttium), Metapontum (Lucania), all from the IE extension *met(a)- of the root *me- 'in the middle of, by, around, with' (Pokorny). The second part is likely an hydronym, and in fact Pokorny proposes a derivation from the IE root *auer- 'water, rain, flow'. Summarizing, the name is built as *met-aur- 'river in the middle'.
Mevaniola
- Place: Pianetto di Galeata, province Forlí, region Emilia-Romagna, Italy
- Name: Mevaniola (Plin.)
- Etymology: Traditionally, the name is explained with the fact that the settlement was founded by Umbrians coming from Mevania. Then Mevaniola is 'the little Mevania'.
Ostra
- Place: Muracce di Ostra Vetere, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Ostra (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name is certainly from an O-language (Italic, Celtic) and has not strict counterparts.
Pitinum Mergens
- Place: close to Acqualagna, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Pitinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: See below under Pitinum Pisaurense.
Pitinum Pisaurense
- Place: Pitino di Macerata Feltria, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Pitinum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Temptatively, the name may be derived from an extension *peit- of the IE root *pei- 'fat, milk', with the possible meaning of 'wet field, grass', from which also Latin pituita. The name has an exact counterpart in Pitinum (Samnium), between the lands of the Sabini and of the Vestini.
Sarsina
- Place: Sarsina, province Forlí-Cesena, region Emilia-Romagna, Italy
- Name: Sarsina (Plin.) Bobium (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The place-name has an exact counterpart in the Umbrian verb sarsite (s<*ç<*k), corresponding to Latin sarcite, from sarcio, -ire 'to remake, repair'. These both derive from the IE root *serk- 'hedge, to fence'. Probably the village arised from a refuge for herdsmen. The late name Bobium can be compared with Bobium (Liguria).
Sena Gallica
- Place: Senigallia, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Sena Gallica (Ptol.) Senagallia (Plin., Peut.) Senogallia (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Usually, it is derived from Gaulish sena 'the old (city)' (UTET), from the IE root *sen- 'old', to which is related also Latin senex.
Sentinum
- Place: umbrian fortress and roman town at Civitalba and Santa Lucia di Sassoferrato, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Sentinum (Ptol., Plin., Liv.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Possibly related to the IE root *sent- 'to take a direction, go', and explained as a Gaulish word *sent- (Anreiter) with the meaning of 'path, route'. The place is close to the Roman via Flaminia, that could have been an important way of communication also during pre-Roman times.
Sestinum
- Place: Sestino, province Arezzo, region Toscana, Italy
- Name: Sestinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: According to [DNGI, p. 499], the name derives from an Etruscan personal name *Sesta, related to Latin Sest(i)us. But the name can be likely related to Umbrian sestu 'I lay', related to Latin sisto, from a reduplication form *si-sta- of the IE root *sta- 'to stand'. Thus, an (Eastern) Italic origin of the place-name is very likely.
Suasa
- Place: Pian Volpello di Castelleone di Suasa, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Suasa (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Possibly, the name is related to some IE root *seu-, for example *seu- 'juice, liquid' as an original river-name. The root is in the zero-grade or O-grade (hence *Sovasa). Compare it with Suana (Etruria).
Tifernum Metaurense
- Place: Sant'Angelo in Vado, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Tifernum (Plin.)
- Etymology: Usually derived from the IE root *tibh- 'to melt'. The name may be explained from a S-stem *tibhes- 'river, marsh', that has a Latin counterpart in Tiber fl., from which name also comes Tifernum Tiberinum. The feature *bh>f is tipically Umbrian, and to the related Oscan language belongs the place-name Tifernum (Samnium). Related to the name, outside of Italy, are also Tibesis fl. (Dacia), Tibina fl. (Sarmatia).
Tuficum
- Place: Borgo Tufico di Fabriano, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Tuficum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: The place-name can likely derive from an Umbrian appellative related to oscan *tufus, from which came the Latin tofus 'tufo stone'.
Urvinum Metaurense
- Place: Urbino, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Urvinum (Plin.) Urbinum (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Unknown.
not identified
Acerrae
- Place: not identified
- Name: Acerrae (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name has an exact counterpart in Acerrae (Campania). Both may be derived from the IE root *akwa- 'water, river' [DNGI, p. 2], with a development *kw>k that is certainly non-Umbrian. Another, more traditional interpretation of the names is from Latin (but possibly an Etruscan appellative) acerra 'casket for incense'.
Casuentum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Casuentum from Casuentillani (Plin.)
- Etymology: Like Casuentus fl. (Lucania), in the same Italic domain, the name is built of a stem *kas-, possibly from the IE root *k'as- 'gray' (compare with Paelignan casnar 'senex'), and a second part that may be the IE *-uent- 'rich of', or a participe marker. In this case, the place-names can be explained from some Osco-Umbrian appellative *kas(u)o- indicating something 'gray' or 'pale', or it can be the participe of an adjective meaning 'shining'.
Crinivolum
- Place: not identified
- Name: Crinivolum (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name is built of a first term crina- that may be (or at least related to) a Gaulish *crina (Anreiter) 'mountain crack', from the IE root *(s)k(e)rei- 'to cut, separate'. It is not known whether this place was in the Ager Gallicus or in the Umbria proprie dicta.
Dola
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Dola from Dolates (Plin.)
- Etymology: The place-name is likely an appellative meaning 'cavity', from the IE root *dhel- 'curve, hollow'. The language of the appellative is an O-language, in which *dh>d (and not *dh>f as in Italic). This language is likely the Gaulish, to which the Welsh dol 'valley' can be compared.
Paesinum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Paesinum from Paesinates (Plin.)
- Etymology: In this place-name, a root *pais- can be recognized, which according to [Villar] is an A-grade form of the IE root *k'ueis-, an extension of *k'uei- 'shining, white'. The phonetic feature *kw>p is a distinguished trait of the Eastern Italic (Umbrian), but the ablaut form in a is not clear.
Vindinum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Vindinum from Vindinates (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name is likely of Gaulish origin, from vindos 'white' - compare e.g. with Vindomagus (Narbonensis) -, that is a word related to latin video, -ere 'to see', from the IE root *ueid- 'to see, to know'. It is thus probable that the place was situated in the Ager Gallicus or close to the Gaulish-influenced area of the Picenum.
Visuentum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Visuentum from Visuentani (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name should refer originally to a river or stream, since it is likely that the first part vis- is the IE root *ueis- 'to flow, poison' in its zero-grade form. The second part is clearly the IE *-uent- 'rich of', so that the meaning of the place-name is 'rich of veins (of water)'. Nothing can be said about the attribution of the name.
Conclusions
This region is recorded to have been inhabited by the Umbrians, together with some other areas later lost to the Etruscans and Gauls. The language of the Umbrians is that of the Tabulae Iguvinae, and belongs to the Eastern Italic (or Osco-Umbrian) group. The names that show the typical traits of this language group (initial f from the IE aspirated voiced stops, development of the labiovelars into labials, vowelization of the sonants, etc.) are spread across the whole region.
A Gaulish toponymy is also certain and well distributed especially in the Ager Gallicus, as it is obvious, but also south of it at the western borders of Picenum. This Gaulish presence is surprising but appears rather clearly from several place-names perfectly fitted by Gaulish appellatives.
- Place: Spoleto, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Spoletium (Ptol., Plin., Paul. Diac.) Spolitium (Burd.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name is certainly due to an O-language (possibly, Eastern Italic that is Umbrian). Temptatively, it can be related to the IE root *(s)pel- 'to split, cut off', with a formant t or a suffix -eto-.
Suillum
- Place: Villa Scirca di Sigillo, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: *Suillum from Suillates (Plin.)
- Etymology: From some information found in the web, possibly the scholar Devoto proposed an earlier form *Sugillum for the place-name, from whence the tribe-name (of the Umbrians) Su(g)illates. The loss of intervocalic g would be, according to this source, typical of the Umbrian language. But the name can be explained as a diminutive *suid-lo- from the IE root *sueid- 'to shine' and interpreted as a 'small clearance' in the plain in which the Umbrian village was built.
Tadinum
- Place: close to Gualdo Tadino, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: *Tadinum from Tadinates (Plin.) Umbrian Tarsina (*Tadina) (inscr.)
- Etymology: Unknown [TI, p. 72]. Possibly, the name has some relationship with a tribe name Tadiates mentioned by Pliny for the Samnium region, in the same Eastern Italic (Osco-Umbrian) domain.
Tifernum Tiberinum
- Place: Cittŕ di Castello, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Tifernum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: The name likely [TI, p. 61-62] derives as a formation *tibher-no- from the Umbrian name of the Tiberis fl. (Latium), showing the typical Eastern Italic (Umbrian) phonetic change *bh>f.
Trebiae
- Place: Trevi, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Trebiae (Plin., inscr.) Treviae (Burd.)
- Etymology: Clearly related to Oscan triibum (*treb-) 'house, building', Umbrian tremnu (*treb-no-) 'tabernaculo', Latin trabs, all from the IE root *treb- 'building, dwelling' [DNGI, p. 539]. The name can be compared with the diminutive form Trebula, for which see under Trebula (Samnium).
Tuder
- Place: Todi, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Tuder (Ptol., Plin., Sil., Peut., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The place-name is the Umbrian appellative tuder 'border', from which Etruscan tular 'border' likely derives (and not vice versa, as stated in [DNGI, p. 527]). The meaning of the placename could have been that of 'edge of a hill'. This appellative has the same origin as the Latin tundo, -ere 'to thrust', from the IE root *(s)teu- 'to push, hit'.
Urvinum Hortense
- Place: Collemancio di Cannara, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Urvinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown.
Vettona
- Place: Bettona, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Vettona (Plin.) Vetona (Peut., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Usually the town is considered an Etruscan foundation on the Umbrian side of the Tiber river, and for the place-name an Etruscan etymology is searched, like the personal name vetu, corresponding to latin Vettonius [DNGI, p. 50].
Galli
Fanum Fortunae
- Place: Fano, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Fanum Fortunae (Ptol., Plin., Caes.) Fanum (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The name is explained from a 'temple of Fortune' existing in this place, named after Latin fanum 'temple'.
Forum Sempronii
- Place: San Martino del Piano di Fossombrone, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Forum Sempronii (Ptol., Plin., Peut.) Forum Simphronii (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The name is the Latin forum 'marketplace' and took the second part from C. Sempronius Gracchus.
Isaurus fl., Pisaurum
- Place: river Foglia (Isaurus fl.), Pesaro (Pisaurum), province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: *Isaurus fl. (from an inscription) Pisaurum (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Mel., Peut.)
- Etymology: The name of the old Umbrian town, later a Roman colony, is usually [DNGI, p. 379] explained as *epi-isaurum 'upon the Isaurus', from the IE preposition *epi 'at, by', as in Opitergium (Venetia), and the name of the river. This latter is likely a compound, from the IE root *eis- 'to move rapidly' and the IE root *auer- 'water, rain, flow', with the meaning of 'rapid stream'. Both the compound parts have counterparts in the same area: see Aesis fl. and Metaurus fl. It is disputed if in the form Isairon found in the Novilara iscription, the name of the river should be recongnized.
Metaurus fl.
- Place: river Metauro, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Metaurus fl. (Plin., Sil.) Mataurus fl. (Peut.)
- Etymology: The name of the river is explained in [DNGI, p. 299] from the same stem *mat-, alternating with *met- as in Matilica. But the name can be instead compared for the first part with Metaurus fl. (Bruttium), Metapontum (Lucania), all from the IE extension *met(a)- of the root *me- 'in the middle of, by, around, with' (Pokorny). The second part is likely an hydronym, and in fact Pokorny proposes a derivation from the IE root *auer- 'water, rain, flow'. Summarizing, the name is built as *met-aur- 'river in the middle'.
Mevaniola
- Place: Pianetto di Galeata, province Forlí, region Emilia-Romagna, Italy
- Name: Mevaniola (Plin.)
- Etymology: Traditionally, the name is explained with the fact that the settlement was founded by Umbrians coming from Mevania. Then Mevaniola is 'the little Mevania'.
Ostra
- Place: Muracce di Ostra Vetere, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Ostra (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name is certainly from an O-language (Italic, Celtic) and has not strict counterparts.
Pitinum Mergens
- Place: close to Acqualagna, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Pitinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: See below under Pitinum Pisaurense.
Pitinum Pisaurense
- Place: Pitino di Macerata Feltria, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Pitinum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Temptatively, the name may be derived from an extension *peit- of the IE root *pei- 'fat, milk', with the possible meaning of 'wet field, grass', from which also Latin pituita. The name has an exact counterpart in Pitinum (Samnium), between the lands of the Sabini and of the Vestini.
Sarsina
- Place: Sarsina, province Forlí-Cesena, region Emilia-Romagna, Italy
- Name: Sarsina (Plin.) Bobium (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The place-name has an exact counterpart in the Umbrian verb sarsite (s<*ç<*k), corresponding to Latin sarcite, from sarcio, -ire 'to remake, repair'. These both derive from the IE root *serk- 'hedge, to fence'. Probably the village arised from a refuge for herdsmen. The late name Bobium can be compared with Bobium (Liguria).
Sena Gallica
- Place: Senigallia, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Sena Gallica (Ptol.) Senagallia (Plin., Peut.) Senogallia (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Usually, it is derived from Gaulish sena 'the old (city)' (UTET), from the IE root *sen- 'old', to which is related also Latin senex.
Sentinum
- Place: umbrian fortress and roman town at Civitalba and Santa Lucia di Sassoferrato, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Sentinum (Ptol., Plin., Liv.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Possibly related to the IE root *sent- 'to take a direction, go', and explained as a Gaulish word *sent- (Anreiter) with the meaning of 'path, route'. The place is close to the Roman via Flaminia, that could have been an important way of communication also during pre-Roman times.
Sestinum
- Place: Sestino, province Arezzo, region Toscana, Italy
- Name: Sestinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: According to [DNGI, p. 499], the name derives from an Etruscan personal name *Sesta, related to Latin Sest(i)us. But the name can be likely related to Umbrian sestu 'I lay', related to Latin sisto, from a reduplication form *si-sta- of the IE root *sta- 'to stand'. Thus, an (Eastern) Italic origin of the place-name is very likely.
Suasa
- Place: Pian Volpello di Castelleone di Suasa, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Suasa (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Possibly, the name is related to some IE root *seu-, for example *seu- 'juice, liquid' as an original river-name. The root is in the zero-grade or O-grade (hence *Sovasa). Compare it with Suana (Etruria).
Tifernum Metaurense
- Place: Sant'Angelo in Vado, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Tifernum (Plin.)
- Etymology: Usually derived from the IE root *tibh- 'to melt'. The name may be explained from a S-stem *tibhes- 'river, marsh', that has a Latin counterpart in Tiber fl., from which name also comes Tifernum Tiberinum. The feature *bh>f is tipically Umbrian, and to the related Oscan language belongs the place-name Tifernum (Samnium). Related to the name, outside of Italy, are also Tibesis fl. (Dacia), Tibina fl. (Sarmatia).
Tuficum
- Place: Borgo Tufico di Fabriano, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Tuficum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: The place-name can likely derive from an Umbrian appellative related to oscan *tufus, from which came the Latin tofus 'tufo stone'.
Urvinum Metaurense
- Place: Urbino, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Urvinum (Plin.) Urbinum (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Unknown.
not identified
Acerrae
- Place: not identified
- Name: Acerrae (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name has an exact counterpart in Acerrae (Campania). Both may be derived from the IE root *akwa- 'water, river' [DNGI, p. 2], with a development *kw>k that is certainly non-Umbrian. Another, more traditional interpretation of the names is from Latin (but possibly an Etruscan appellative) acerra 'casket for incense'.
Casuentum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Casuentum from Casuentillani (Plin.)
- Etymology: Like Casuentus fl. (Lucania), in the same Italic domain, the name is built of a stem *kas-, possibly from the IE root *k'as- 'gray' (compare with Paelignan casnar 'senex'), and a second part that may be the IE *-uent- 'rich of', or a participe marker. In this case, the place-names can be explained from some Osco-Umbrian appellative *kas(u)o- indicating something 'gray' or 'pale', or it can be the participe of an adjective meaning 'shining'.
Crinivolum
- Place: not identified
- Name: Crinivolum (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name is built of a first term crina- that may be (or at least related to) a Gaulish *crina (Anreiter) 'mountain crack', from the IE root *(s)k(e)rei- 'to cut, separate'. It is not known whether this place was in the Ager Gallicus or in the Umbria proprie dicta.
Dola
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Dola from Dolates (Plin.)
- Etymology: The place-name is likely an appellative meaning 'cavity', from the IE root *dhel- 'curve, hollow'. The language of the appellative is an O-language, in which *dh>d (and not *dh>f as in Italic). This language is likely the Gaulish, to which the Welsh dol 'valley' can be compared.
Paesinum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Paesinum from Paesinates (Plin.)
- Etymology: In this place-name, a root *pais- can be recognized, which according to [Villar] is an A-grade form of the IE root *k'ueis-, an extension of *k'uei- 'shining, white'. The phonetic feature *kw>p is a distinguished trait of the Eastern Italic (Umbrian), but the ablaut form in a is not clear.
Vindinum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Vindinum from Vindinates (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name is likely of Gaulish origin, from vindos 'white' - compare e.g. with Vindomagus (Narbonensis) -, that is a word related to latin video, -ere 'to see', from the IE root *ueid- 'to see, to know'. It is thus probable that the place was situated in the Ager Gallicus or close to the Gaulish-influenced area of the Picenum.
Visuentum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Visuentum from Visuentani (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name should refer originally to a river or stream, since it is likely that the first part vis- is the IE root *ueis- 'to flow, poison' in its zero-grade form. The second part is clearly the IE *-uent- 'rich of', so that the meaning of the place-name is 'rich of veins (of water)'. Nothing can be said about the attribution of the name.
Conclusions
This region is recorded to have been inhabited by the Umbrians, together with some other areas later lost to the Etruscans and Gauls. The language of the Umbrians is that of the Tabulae Iguvinae, and belongs to the Eastern Italic (or Osco-Umbrian) group. The names that show the typical traits of this language group (initial f from the IE aspirated voiced stops, development of the labiovelars into labials, vowelization of the sonants, etc.) are spread across the whole region.
A Gaulish toponymy is also certain and well distributed especially in the Ager Gallicus, as it is obvious, but also south of it at the western borders of Picenum. This Gaulish presence is surprising but appears rather clearly from several place-names perfectly fitted by Gaulish appellatives.
- Place: Trevi, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Trebiae (Plin., inscr.) Treviae (Burd.)
- Etymology: Clearly related to Oscan triibum (*treb-) 'house, building', Umbrian tremnu (*treb-no-) 'tabernaculo', Latin trabs, all from the IE root *treb- 'building, dwelling' [DNGI, p. 539]. The name can be compared with the diminutive form Trebula, for which see under Trebula (Samnium).
- Place: Todi, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Tuder (Ptol., Plin., Sil., Peut., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The place-name is the Umbrian appellative tuder 'border', from which Etruscan tular 'border' likely derives (and not vice versa, as stated in [DNGI, p. 527]). The meaning of the placename could have been that of 'edge of a hill'. This appellative has the same origin as the Latin tundo, -ere 'to thrust', from the IE root *(s)teu- 'to push, hit'.
- Place: Collemancio di Cannara, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Urvinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown.
- Place: Bettona, province Perugia, region Umbria, Italy
- Name: Vettona (Plin.) Vetona (Peut., Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Usually the town is considered an Etruscan foundation on the Umbrian side of the Tiber river, and for the place-name an Etruscan etymology is searched, like the personal name vetu, corresponding to latin Vettonius [DNGI, p. 50].
- Place: Fano, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Fanum Fortunae (Ptol., Plin., Caes.) Fanum (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The name is explained from a 'temple of Fortune' existing in this place, named after Latin fanum 'temple'.
Forum Sempronii
- Place: San Martino del Piano di Fossombrone, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Forum Sempronii (Ptol., Plin., Peut.) Forum Simphronii (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The name is the Latin forum 'marketplace' and took the second part from C. Sempronius Gracchus.
Isaurus fl., Pisaurum
- Place: river Foglia (Isaurus fl.), Pesaro (Pisaurum), province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: *Isaurus fl. (from an inscription) Pisaurum (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Mel., Peut.)
- Etymology: The name of the old Umbrian town, later a Roman colony, is usually [DNGI, p. 379] explained as *epi-isaurum 'upon the Isaurus', from the IE preposition *epi 'at, by', as in Opitergium (Venetia), and the name of the river. This latter is likely a compound, from the IE root *eis- 'to move rapidly' and the IE root *auer- 'water, rain, flow', with the meaning of 'rapid stream'. Both the compound parts have counterparts in the same area: see Aesis fl. and Metaurus fl. It is disputed if in the form Isairon found in the Novilara iscription, the name of the river should be recongnized.
Metaurus fl.
- Place: river Metauro, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Metaurus fl. (Plin., Sil.) Mataurus fl. (Peut.)
- Etymology: The name of the river is explained in [DNGI, p. 299] from the same stem *mat-, alternating with *met- as in Matilica. But the name can be instead compared for the first part with Metaurus fl. (Bruttium), Metapontum (Lucania), all from the IE extension *met(a)- of the root *me- 'in the middle of, by, around, with' (Pokorny). The second part is likely an hydronym, and in fact Pokorny proposes a derivation from the IE root *auer- 'water, rain, flow'. Summarizing, the name is built as *met-aur- 'river in the middle'.
Mevaniola
- Place: Pianetto di Galeata, province Forlí, region Emilia-Romagna, Italy
- Name: Mevaniola (Plin.)
- Etymology: Traditionally, the name is explained with the fact that the settlement was founded by Umbrians coming from Mevania. Then Mevaniola is 'the little Mevania'.
Ostra
- Place: Muracce di Ostra Vetere, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Ostra (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. The name is certainly from an O-language (Italic, Celtic) and has not strict counterparts.
Pitinum Mergens
- Place: close to Acqualagna, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Pitinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: See below under Pitinum Pisaurense.
Pitinum Pisaurense
- Place: Pitino di Macerata Feltria, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Pitinum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Temptatively, the name may be derived from an extension *peit- of the IE root *pei- 'fat, milk', with the possible meaning of 'wet field, grass', from which also Latin pituita. The name has an exact counterpart in Pitinum (Samnium), between the lands of the Sabini and of the Vestini.
Sarsina
- Place: Sarsina, province Forlí-Cesena, region Emilia-Romagna, Italy
- Name: Sarsina (Plin.) Bobium (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: The place-name has an exact counterpart in the Umbrian verb sarsite (s<*ç<*k), corresponding to Latin sarcite, from sarcio, -ire 'to remake, repair'. These both derive from the IE root *serk- 'hedge, to fence'. Probably the village arised from a refuge for herdsmen. The late name Bobium can be compared with Bobium (Liguria).
Sena Gallica
- Place: Senigallia, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Sena Gallica (Ptol.) Senagallia (Plin., Peut.) Senogallia (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Usually, it is derived from Gaulish sena 'the old (city)' (UTET), from the IE root *sen- 'old', to which is related also Latin senex.
Sentinum
- Place: umbrian fortress and roman town at Civitalba and Santa Lucia di Sassoferrato, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Sentinum (Ptol., Plin., Liv.)
- Etymology: Unknown. Possibly related to the IE root *sent- 'to take a direction, go', and explained as a Gaulish word *sent- (Anreiter) with the meaning of 'path, route'. The place is close to the Roman via Flaminia, that could have been an important way of communication also during pre-Roman times.
Sestinum
- Place: Sestino, province Arezzo, region Toscana, Italy
- Name: Sestinum (Plin.)
- Etymology: According to [DNGI, p. 499], the name derives from an Etruscan personal name *Sesta, related to Latin Sest(i)us. But the name can be likely related to Umbrian sestu 'I lay', related to Latin sisto, from a reduplication form *si-sta- of the IE root *sta- 'to stand'. Thus, an (Eastern) Italic origin of the place-name is very likely.
Suasa
- Place: Pian Volpello di Castelleone di Suasa, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Suasa (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: Possibly, the name is related to some IE root *seu-, for example *seu- 'juice, liquid' as an original river-name. The root is in the zero-grade or O-grade (hence *Sovasa). Compare it with Suana (Etruria).
Tifernum Metaurense
- Place: Sant'Angelo in Vado, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Tifernum (Plin.)
- Etymology: Usually derived from the IE root *tibh- 'to melt'. The name may be explained from a S-stem *tibhes- 'river, marsh', that has a Latin counterpart in Tiber fl., from which name also comes Tifernum Tiberinum. The feature *bh>f is tipically Umbrian, and to the related Oscan language belongs the place-name Tifernum (Samnium). Related to the name, outside of Italy, are also Tibesis fl. (Dacia), Tibina fl. (Sarmatia).
Tuficum
- Place: Borgo Tufico di Fabriano, province Ancona, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Tuficum (Ptol., Plin.)
- Etymology: The place-name can likely derive from an Umbrian appellative related to oscan *tufus, from which came the Latin tofus 'tufo stone'.
Urvinum Metaurense
- Place: Urbino, province Pesaro e Urbino, region Marche, Italy
- Name: Urvinum (Plin.) Urbinum (Paul. Diac.)
- Etymology: Unknown.
not identified
Acerrae
- Place: not identified
- Name: Acerrae (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name has an exact counterpart in Acerrae (Campania). Both may be derived from the IE root *akwa- 'water, river' [DNGI, p. 2], with a development *kw>k that is certainly non-Umbrian. Another, more traditional interpretation of the names is from Latin (but possibly an Etruscan appellative) acerra 'casket for incense'.
Casuentum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Casuentum from Casuentillani (Plin.)
- Etymology: Like Casuentus fl. (Lucania), in the same Italic domain, the name is built of a stem *kas-, possibly from the IE root *k'as- 'gray' (compare with Paelignan casnar 'senex'), and a second part that may be the IE *-uent- 'rich of', or a participe marker. In this case, the place-names can be explained from some Osco-Umbrian appellative *kas(u)o- indicating something 'gray' or 'pale', or it can be the participe of an adjective meaning 'shining'.
Crinivolum
- Place: not identified
- Name: Crinivolum (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name is built of a first term crina- that may be (or at least related to) a Gaulish *crina (Anreiter) 'mountain crack', from the IE root *(s)k(e)rei- 'to cut, separate'. It is not known whether this place was in the Ager Gallicus or in the Umbria proprie dicta.
Dola
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Dola from Dolates (Plin.)
- Etymology: The place-name is likely an appellative meaning 'cavity', from the IE root *dhel- 'curve, hollow'. The language of the appellative is an O-language, in which *dh>d (and not *dh>f as in Italic). This language is likely the Gaulish, to which the Welsh dol 'valley' can be compared.
Paesinum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Paesinum from Paesinates (Plin.)
- Etymology: In this place-name, a root *pais- can be recognized, which according to [Villar] is an A-grade form of the IE root *k'ueis-, an extension of *k'uei- 'shining, white'. The phonetic feature *kw>p is a distinguished trait of the Eastern Italic (Umbrian), but the ablaut form in a is not clear.
Vindinum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Vindinum from Vindinates (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name is likely of Gaulish origin, from vindos 'white' - compare e.g. with Vindomagus (Narbonensis) -, that is a word related to latin video, -ere 'to see', from the IE root *ueid- 'to see, to know'. It is thus probable that the place was situated in the Ager Gallicus or close to the Gaulish-influenced area of the Picenum.
Visuentum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Visuentum from Visuentani (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name should refer originally to a river or stream, since it is likely that the first part vis- is the IE root *ueis- 'to flow, poison' in its zero-grade form. The second part is clearly the IE *-uent- 'rich of', so that the meaning of the place-name is 'rich of veins (of water)'. Nothing can be said about the attribution of the name.
Conclusions
This region is recorded to have been inhabited by the Umbrians, together with some other areas later lost to the Etruscans and Gauls. The language of the Umbrians is that of the Tabulae Iguvinae, and belongs to the Eastern Italic (or Osco-Umbrian) group. The names that show the typical traits of this language group (initial f from the IE aspirated voiced stops, development of the labiovelars into labials, vowelization of the sonants, etc.) are spread across the whole region.
A Gaulish toponymy is also certain and well distributed especially in the Ager Gallicus, as it is obvious, but also south of it at the western borders of Picenum. This Gaulish presence is surprising but appears rather clearly from several place-names perfectly fitted by Gaulish appellatives.
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Casuentum from Casuentillani (Plin.)
- Etymology: Like Casuentus fl. (Lucania), in the same Italic domain, the name is built of a stem *kas-, possibly from the IE root *k'as- 'gray' (compare with Paelignan casnar 'senex'), and a second part that may be the IE *-uent- 'rich of', or a participe marker. In this case, the place-names can be explained from some Osco-Umbrian appellative *kas(u)o- indicating something 'gray' or 'pale', or it can be the participe of an adjective meaning 'shining'.
Crinivolum
- Place: not identified
- Name: Crinivolum (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name is built of a first term crina- that may be (or at least related to) a Gaulish *crina (Anreiter) 'mountain crack', from the IE root *(s)k(e)rei- 'to cut, separate'. It is not known whether this place was in the Ager Gallicus or in the Umbria proprie dicta.
Dola
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Dola from Dolates (Plin.)
- Etymology: The place-name is likely an appellative meaning 'cavity', from the IE root *dhel- 'curve, hollow'. The language of the appellative is an O-language, in which *dh>d (and not *dh>f as in Italic). This language is likely the Gaulish, to which the Welsh dol 'valley' can be compared.
Paesinum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Paesinum from Paesinates (Plin.)
- Etymology: In this place-name, a root *pais- can be recognized, which according to [Villar] is an A-grade form of the IE root *k'ueis-, an extension of *k'uei- 'shining, white'. The phonetic feature *kw>p is a distinguished trait of the Eastern Italic (Umbrian), but the ablaut form in a is not clear.
Vindinum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Vindinum from Vindinates (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name is likely of Gaulish origin, from vindos 'white' - compare e.g. with Vindomagus (Narbonensis) -, that is a word related to latin video, -ere 'to see', from the IE root *ueid- 'to see, to know'. It is thus probable that the place was situated in the Ager Gallicus or close to the Gaulish-influenced area of the Picenum.
Visuentum
- Place: not identified
- Name: *Visuentum from Visuentani (Plin.)
- Etymology: The name should refer originally to a river or stream, since it is likely that the first part vis- is the IE root *ueis- 'to flow, poison' in its zero-grade form. The second part is clearly the IE *-uent- 'rich of', so that the meaning of the place-name is 'rich of veins (of water)'. Nothing can be said about the attribution of the name.
Conclusions
This region is recorded to have been inhabited by the Umbrians, together with some other areas later lost to the Etruscans and Gauls. The language of the Umbrians is that of the Tabulae Iguvinae, and belongs to the Eastern Italic (or Osco-Umbrian) group. The names that show the typical traits of this language group (initial f from the IE aspirated voiced stops, development of the labiovelars into labials, vowelization of the sonants, etc.) are spread across the whole region.
A Gaulish toponymy is also certain and well distributed especially in the Ager Gallicus, as it is obvious, but also south of it at the western borders of Picenum. This Gaulish presence is surprising but appears rather clearly from several place-names perfectly fitted by Gaulish appellatives.