Antonio Sciarretta's Toponymy Ancient Toponymy

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Gallia Narbonensis

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Narbonese Gaul was one of the first Roman provinces, named after its capital Narbo founded in 118 BC. Before, it was centered around the Greek colony of Massilia and named Gallia Transalpina. The province was comprised between the Alps, the Mediterranean Sea, the Pyrenees, and the Cevennes Mountains. Following the low Rhone valley, its territory arrived close to Lyon, the capital of neighbouring Gallia Lugdunensis.

Before the Roman conquest, the region was inhabited by many tribes and confederations, namely, Vediantii, Nerusii, Deciates, Oxybii, Comani, Anatilii, Desuviates, Salyes, Albici, Vulgientes, Memini, Cavares, Vocontii, Avantici, Bodiontici, Sogiontii, Caturiges, Ucenni, Allobroges, Segovellauni, and Ceutrones east of the river Rhone, Volcae Arecomici, Ruteni, Volcae Tectosagi, and Sardones west of the Rhone. This page includes the toponyms of the separated Roman provinces of Alpes Cottiae, Alpes Maritimae, and Alpes Graiae.

Common remarks: the place-names have been put in the nominative case, an asterisk * means not attested, reconstructed form. The late place-names of probable Latin origin have not been included. The IE roots are in the form given by Pokorny's Indogermanische Wörterbuch. The links will be active when the single pages will be published, see the main page. For any comment, suggestion, email me.

Vediantii

Sanitium

• Place: Senez, department Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Sanitium (Ptol.)
• Etymology: Unknown.

Cemenelum

• Place: Cimiez of Nice, department Alpes-Maritimes, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Cemenelum (Ptol.) Cemenellum (Peut.)
• Etymology: The name shows a typical Ligurian ending -elo, thought to be a diminutive marker, see Lebriemelus fons (Liguria). However the stem is unclear, unless one posits a "Liguarian" consonant shift and explains it with the IE root *g'hem- 'earth'.

Nerusii

Vintium

• Place: Vence, department Alpes-Maritimes, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Vintium (Ptol.)
• Etymology: Usually related to Gaulish uinto- 'wint', which reflects the IE participe form *ue-nt- 'the blower'. Thus the name meant 'the windy (place)'.

Deciates

Antipolis

• Place: Antibes, department Alpes-Maritimes, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Antipolis (Ptol., Plin., Strab., It. Ant., Peut., Not. Dign.)
• Etymology: A Greek name meaning 'the city in front', give to the place by the Greek colonists from Massalia.

Varus fl., Varum

• Place: river Var, (Varus fl.) Saint-Laurent-du-Var (Varum), department Alpes-Maritimes, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Varus fl. (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Peut., Caes.) Varum (Peut.)
• Etymology: Usually explained from the IE root *(a)uer- 'water, rain, flow'. The phonetics of the name implies an A-language (likely Ligurian) or a special treatment of the sonant r.

Oxybii

Aegitna

• Place: traditionally but not proveably identified with Cannes, department Alpes-Maritimes, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Aegytna (Polyb.)
• Etymology: The stem recalls the Greek aix 'goat', which is rather common in toponymy to designate craggy places. Compare with Aegates i. (Sicilia).

Comani

Argenteus fl.

• Place: river Argens, department Var, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Argenteus fl. (Ptol., Plin., Cicer.)
• Etymology: Latin or Celtic, from the word for 'silver' related to the colour of the water.

Athenopolis

• Place: not proveably Saint Tropez, department Var, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Athenopolis (Plin., Mel.)
• Etymology: A Greek compound name, meaning 'the town of Athena'. Incidentally, the etymology of latter is Pelasgian, as the aspirated stop shows, likely from the IE root *ak't- meaning 'head' in this context (the goddess was born from the forehead of Zeus). The theonym is clearly related to the name of the city of Athens, also of Pelasgian origins.

*Borma

• Place: Bormes-les-Mimosas, department Var, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: *Borma (Plin., late antiquity)
• Etymology: Usually (Pokorny) interpreted as an appellative 'spring', which is reflected also in ethnical and divinity names. It derives from the IE root *bher- 'to boil, swell, get high', which was particularly applied to spring names. The other derivation from the IE root *ghwer- 'hot, warm' (in that case, the meaning would be 'hot spring') is less likely for phonetic reasons. The O-grade should charcaterize the name as Celtic.

Citharista pr.

• Place: Bec de l'Aigle, department Bouches-du-Rhône, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Citharistes pr. (Ptol.) Citharista portus (Plin., Mela) Citharistium pr. (Avien.)
• Etymology: The promonotry was called after a surname of Apollon, 'the lyre's player'. The name is continued by that of Ceyreste, a town near La Ciotat in whose municipality the promontory is.

Lacydon

• Place: Vieux-Port of Marseille, department Bouches-du-Rhône, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name:
• Etymology: Usually unexplained or related to a similar placename in Crete, probably reattributed by the Phocean Greeks for the similarity of the places. The original toponym is likely a Pelasgian compound name with a first term *laku- derived from the IE *laku- 'water basin (ditch, lake, sea)' and a not uncommon second term -don that reflects the IE root *g'hem- 'earth'. Thus the meaning of the original name could have been 'land of the still waters', which fits the morphology of the Marseille's site (a port). The phonetic shift from *g'h to d- is admitted for Old Irish (a Celtic language), but it has been posited for some Balkaninc languages as well.

Massilia

• Place: Marseille, department Bouches-du-Rhône, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Massilia (Ptol., Plin., Caes., Liv., Avien., It. Ant., Rav.) Massalia (Strab.) Masilia (Peut.)
• Etymology: The placename Massalia was given by the Phocean Greeks to their foundation, but it is likely a pre-existing Gaulish name. Possibly related with Middle irish mass 'grand, noble, superb' (*mak-so-s), which derives from the IE root *meg'(h)- 'big'. It is not clear whether the ending -ilia reflects some suffix or it is rather the second term of a compound name.

Olbia

• Place: Almanarre of Hyères, department Var, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Olbia (Ptol., Strab.)
• Etymology: The name means 'the lucky (town)' in Greek, since it was founded by Greek colonists from Massilia.

Rhodanus fl.

• Place: river Rhône, France
• Name: Rhodanus fl. (Ptol., Plin., Mel., Liv., Caes.)
• Etymology: Clearly a Gaulish compound hydronym Ro-danu-, from Gaulish *danu- 'river' that reflects the IE root *da- 'to flow' and the Gaulish intensive prefix ro-, which in turn derives from the IE preposition *pro- 'forward'. Thus the meaning of the name was 'the very much flowing (river)'.

Tauroentium

• Place: Le Brusc of Six-Fours-les-Plages, department Var, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Tauroentium (Ptol., Strab.) Tauroenta (Caes.) Taurois (Mela) Tauroeis (Steph. Byz.) Taurentum (It. Ant.)
• Etymology: Similarly to Tauroentum (Bruttium), another Greek foundation, the origin is likely from the name of a beast and a suffix related to IE -uent- 'rich of' (or a participe marker). The former is from the extension *teur- of the IE root *teur- 'fat, strong, etc.', from which also the names for the 'bull', Latin taurus, Greek tauros.

Telo Martius

• Place: Toulon, department Var, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Telo Martius (It. Ant.)
• Etymology: While the second term is likely an adjective meaning 'of Mars (the Roman god)', the first term can be compared with two Gaulish placenames Telonnum. The latter are obscure for Falileyev and other scholars, but they can be derived from the IE root *tel(e)- 'flat, flat ground, board' that may designate various site morphologies. According to Delamarre, a Gaulish appellative derived from this root was talu-, talamon- 'front, surface', which could explain the placename. Compare also with Telamo (Etruria), also located on a promontory.

Anatilii

Arelate

• Place: Arles, department Bouches-du-Rhône, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Arelate (Plin., Mel., Strab., Caes., It. Ant., Burd.) Arelatum (Ptol., Peut., Rav.) Arelata (Gad.)
• Etymology: A clearly Celtic compound name, with are- 'by' and lat- 'swamp'. The latter is usually considered a Gaulish cognate of the IE root *lat- 'wet, damp, swamp'.

Mastramela stagnum

• Place: Pool of Berre (Mastramela stagnum), Saint-Blaise of Saint-Mitre-les-Remparts (Mastramela oppidum), department Bouches-du-Rhône, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Mastramela (Steph. Byz.) Mastromela (Plin.) Mastrabela (Avien.)
• Etymology: Likely a Ligurian placename, as the ending -mela shows (compare with Blustiemelum iugum, Lebriemelus fons (Liguria). The ending can be analyzed as *-m_en-lo-s, thus the zero-grade form of the denominal suffix *-mon and a diminutive suffix. However, the meaning of the first part is unclear.

Metapinum ostium

• Place: Saint-Ferréol arm of the Rhône delta (closed in XVI century), department Bouches-du-Rhône, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Metapinum (Plin.)
• Etymology: Usually (Pokorny) interpreted as formed by two compounded elements meta- 'middle' and ap- 'water', reflecting the IE roots *met(a)- 'in the middle of, by, around, with' and *ap 'water, river', respectively. Considering the several counterparts in different domains, e.g., Metubarbis fl. (Illyria) and Metapontum (Lucania), the hydronym cannot be attributed to any IE stratum with certainty.

Desuviates

Bellintum

• Place: unknown, department Bouches-du-Rhône, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Bellintum (Burd.)
• Etymology: A Gaulish element bell- is clearly recognized in the placename. However, the meaning and etymology of that is highly disputed (Falileyev). The most traditional hypothesis is that Gaulish belo- meant 'white' from the IE root *bhel(e)- 'shining, white' and bello- < *bel-no-.

Ernaginum

• Place: Saint-Gabriel of Tarascon, department Bouches-du-Rhône, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Ernaginum (Ptol., It. Ant., Gad.) Ernagina (Peut.) Arnagina (Burd.)
• Etymology: The stem *erno- has been identified in several Celtic place-names but its interpretation is highly conjectural (Falileyev). Similarly, multiple meanings have been proposed for the possible second term *-ago-, while the ending of the placename is a suffix.

Glanum

• Place: close to Saint-Rémy-de-Provence, department Bouches-du-Rhône, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Glanum (Ptol., Plin., It. Ant.) Clanum (Peut., Gad.) Calum (Rav.)
• Etymology: Usually equated to the Gaulish adjective glano- 'pure, clean', which is a cognate of the IE root *g'hel- 'to shine, green, gold, blue'.

Tarusco

• Place: Tarascon, department Bouches-du-Rhône, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Tarusco (Ptol., Plin.) Arasco (Rav.)
• Etymology: According to Falileyev, Delamarre has proposed an etymology for this name deriving it from the IE root *ter- 'to cross, transgress, to stay'. Indeed, by the town there was an important bridge on the river Rhone. However, the intepretation of the Celtic stem *taro- is problematic for many scholars. Moreover, the suffix is traditionally considered as typically Ligurian.

Salyes or Salluvii

Anteae

• Place: possibly Lentier of Draguignan, department Var, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Anteae (Peut.)
• Etymology: Knowing that the e before the final syllabe was probably due to a later Gaulish pronounciation (or graphic rendering) of a semi-consonantic i, the placename could be reconstructed as *Antiae. By comparison with Antium (Latium), it could be interpreted as meaning 'a promontory', as the morphology of the site also suggests. The same meaning is also compatible with an origin from the different IE root *ant- 'forward, before'.

Caenus fl.

• Place: River Arc, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Caenus fl. (Ptol.)
• Etymology: Like other place-names such as Caenina (Latium), the hydronym is likely derived from the IE root *k'uei- 'shining, white'. The presence of an a for the original O-grade implies that the hydronym is pre-Gaulish, likely Ligurian. Note that the homonym Latin appellative caenum 'dirt, mud' is probably derived from the same IE root.

Matavo

• Place: Cabasse, department Var, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Matavo (Peut.) Matavonium (It. Ant.) Pataum (Rav.)
• Etymology: Usually (Falileyev) interpreted as a Gaulish name related to the adjective matu- 'good' (from whence also the Celtic taboo name of the 'bear').

Pisavis

• Place: Saint-Jean-de-Bernasse of Salon-de-Provence, department Bouches-du-Rhône, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Pisavis (Peut.)
• Etymology: Tentatively interpreted as a compound name, with the first term recalling Pisae (Etruria) and thus the zero-grade form *pid-sa- of the IE root *peid- 'spring, swamp'. The second term is either a suffix or it might be related to the IE root *au(e)- 'to flow'. Thus the site could have taken its name from a pre-existent hydronym.

Tericiae

• Place: Servane of Mouriès, department Bouches-du-Rhône, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Tericiae (Peut.)
• Etymology: The name might reflect the uncompounded counterpart of the Gaulish term *-stero- 'fortress' found in Segustero, that is, a cognate of the IE root *(s)ter- 'stiff, solid', with loss of the mobile *s.

Albici

Alebaece

• Place: Saint-Maxime of Riez, department Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Albioeci (Strab.) Alebaece Reiorum Apollinarium (Plin.) Reii Apollinares (Peut.)
• Etymology: Tentatively, it might be derived from an ablaut form of the IE root *albho- 'white' similarly to Greek alophos 'white' or Armenian alauni 'dove'. According to Pokorny, this ablaut form was specialized to form names of 'white' plants and animals. In alternative, behind the placename there was a form *alawo- that is also traceable in hydronyms like Alaunium.

Vulgientes

Apta

• Place: Apt, department Vaucluse, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Apta Iulia (Plin., It. Ant., Peut., Not. Dign.)
• Etymology: A Roman colony founded in 45 BC by Julius Caesar, it took its specification by him. However, it is not clear whether the first term Apta is related to Latin aptus 'adapt' or it is an older placename.

Memini

Carbantorate

• Place: Carpentras, department Vaucluse, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Car(b)antorate (Plin.) Carpentorate (late antiquity)
• Etymology: A clear Gaulish compound name, meaning 'fortification of chariots', from carbanto- 'chariot' and rato- 'earthwork, fortification'. The former appellative is usually derived from the IE root *(s)kerbh- 'to turn, curve', while the latter is associated to Latin pratum 'meadow' into an IE root *pra- 'to bend'. The city was later renamed Forum Neronis after emperor Nero.

Cavares

Acunum

• Place: Montélimar, department Vaucluse, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Acusium (Ptol.) Acunum (Peut., Burd., Rav.)
• Etymology: The placename reflects the Gaulish appellative acauno- 'stone', which is usually (Delamarre) derived from *ak'-mon-, a suffixed form of the IE root *ak'- 'sharp'.

Arausio

• Place: Orange, department Vaucluse, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Arausio (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Mel., Burd.) Arusio (Peut.) Arasio (Rav.)
• Etymology: It reflects a Gaulish araus(i)o- that is usually (Delamarre, Falileyev) intepreted as meaning 'temple'. Arausio was also a Gaulish theonym.

Avennio

• Place: Avignon, department Vaucluse, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Avennio (Ptol., Plin., Mel., Peut.) Avenio (Strab., Burd., Steph. Byz.) Abicinio (Rav.)
• Etymology: It has been interpreted (de Hoz) as *ad-ueni-io- '(place of many) kinds' from Gaulish ueni- 'kin', a cognate of the IE root *uen(e)- 'to strive, wish for, love'. Another possibility is a cognate of Latin venio 'I come' and a meaning of 'confluence'. The town is indeed close to the confluence of the river Durance with the Rhone. Since in Celtic languages *gw > b, the shift from the IE root *gwe- 'to go, come' to the v of the name could be explained in the framework of the Ligurian language.

Cabellio

• Place: Cavaillon, department Vaucluse, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Cabellio (Ptol., Plin., It. Ant., Gad.) Caballio (Strab.) Cavellio (It. Ant.) Cavallina (Peut.)
• Etymology: Usually derived from the Gaulish name caballo-, cabello- 'horse', but with "various degrees of scepticism" (Falileyev).

Druentia fl.

• Place: river Durance, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Druentia fl. (Ptol., Liv., Strab.) Druantia fl. (Plin.)
• Etymology: It belongs to a large European family of hydronyms including, e.g., *Druentia fl. (Cispadana). These names are derived from the IE root *d(e)reu- 'to run' and in particular Druentia is usually (Pokorny) interpreted as a participe *dru-ent- 'the running (river)'.

Senomagus

• Place: Saint-Pierre-de-Sénos of Bollène, department Vaucluse, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Senomagus (Peut.) Bonomagus (Rav.)
• Etymology: A Gaulish compound name with seno- 'old' and mago- 'field, market-place'.

Vocontii

Darentiaca

• Place: Saillans, department Drôme, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Darentiaca (Burd.)
• Etymology: The suffix -aca is very common and means 'pertaining to'. Since the placename is only attested in late antiquity, it might be a praedial name derived from the personal name of a landlord, thus '(the domain) of a *Darentios'. In any case, the name can be compared with Darantasia and might be ultimately related to the same IE root *dher- 'to hold, support'.

Gaura m.

• Place: Col-de-Cabre pass, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Gaura m. (Burd.)
• Etymology: As the present name meaning 'pass of (accessible only to) the goats' indicates, the placename reflects the Gaulish appellative gabro- 'goat' (Falileyev). The Gaulish b was somehow pronounced as a bilabial w.

Noviomagus

• Place: Noyons, department Drôme, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Noeomagus (Ptol.)
• Etymology: A clear Gaulish compound name, from novio- 'new' and mago- 'field, market'.

Vasium

• Place: Vaison-la-Romaine, department Vaucluse, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Vasium (Ptol., Plin., Mel.)
• Etymology: Tentatively derived (Delamarre) from a Gaulish *ua-stio-n 'lowly located (place)', related to Gaulish uasso- 'servant' (*upo-sto-), a derivate of the IE preposition *upo 'under' and the IE root *sta- 'to stand'.

Vologates

• Place: Beaurières, department Drôme, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Vologates, Volocates (Burd.)
• Etymology: Unknown.

Avantici

Alabons

• Place: Monêtier-Allemont, department Hautes-Alpes, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Alabons (It. Ant., Gad.) Alarans (Peut.)
• Etymology: According to Isaac (cited by Falileyev), the name is to be analyzed as *al-abon. However, the ending is likely to be a participe marker, thus the stem could be rather explained from an extension of the IE root *al- 'to grow, nourish', as 'the nourishing (place)'. One could posit a form *alawo- (with b thus representing an hypercorrection, from its the bilabial pronouncation) behind both this toponym and Alaunium. The O-grade makes the placename's origin likely to be Gaulish.

Cambonum

• Place: Font-Vineuse of Saint-Pierre-d'Argençon, department Hautes-Alpes, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Cambonum (Burd.)
• Etymology: A common Gaulish placename reflecting the appellative cambo- 'the crooked', a cognate of the IE root *(s)kamb- 'to curve, bend'.

Ictodurum

• Place: Montreviol of La Bâtie-Neuve, department Hautes-Alpes, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Ictodurum (Peut.) Idodimus (Rav.)
• Etymology: The second element is clearly the Gaulish duro- 'walled fort, town' (or 'market place' according to Delamarre), a cognate of the IE root *dhuer- 'door'. The first element is problematic. Tentatively, it could be explained as *ik-ti- 'property' from the zero-grade IE root *eik- 'to possess', and a -ti suffix that forms abstract nouns.

Vapincum

• Place: Gap, department Hautes-Alpes, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Vapincum (It. Ant.) Vappincum (Burd., Gad.) Bapincum (Rav.)
• Etymology: Unknown. Explained very unlikely by Delamarre with the Gaulish uepo- as 'the speakers' (place)'. However, in Gaulish and other Celtic languages the cognates of the IE root *uekw- 'say, utter' changed their meaning into that of 'face, aspect'.

Bodiontici

Dinia

• Place: Digne-les-Bains, department Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Dinia (Ptol., Plin.)
• Etymology: It has been interpreted by Isaac as 'place of slaughter', from a posited Gaulish element *dino- 'destruction, slaughter', which would reflect the IE root *gwhdhei- 'to perish, destroy'.

Sogiontii

Alaunium

• Place: Notre-Dame-des-Anges of Lurs, department Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Alaunium (Peut., It. Ant., Gad.)
• Etymology: Usually explained as a Gaulish word alauna- meaning 'stream', whose etymology is nevertheless controversial (Falileyev). It is variously derived from an ablaut form of the IE root *albho- 'white' as 'the shining (river)' (Pokorny), or a dissimilated form *al_a-mno- from the IE root *al- 'to grow, nourish' as 'the nourisher (river)' (Delamarre). Anyway, the hydronym is highly common in the Celtic domain, compare with Alaunus fl. (Britannia).

Catuiacia

• Place: Saint-Saveur of Céreste, department Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Catuiacia (Peut., Gad.) Catuiaca (It. Ant.)
• Etymology: Usually (Falileyev) interpreted as a compound name with the first element being a Gaulish catu- 'battle'. For the second term, some scholars point out at Welsh iach 'healthy', which is a cognate of Old Irish hicc 'cure, healing'. Thus a senseful meaning could have been '(place of the) healing after the battle'.

Segustero

• Place: Sisteron, department Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Segustero (Peut., It. Ant., Gad.)
• Etymology: A clearly Gaulish compound name. The first term is Gaulish sego- 'strength', a cognate of the IE root *seg'h- 'to hold, possess, overcome, victory'. The second element is usually (Delamarre) interpreted as a Gaulish appellative stero-, storo- 'fortress' from the IE root *(s)ter- 'stiff, solid'. According to Nègre, -teron is rather a comparative form, thus the placename would mean 'the strongest'.

Caturiges

Eburodunum

• Place: Embrun, department Hautes-Alpes, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Eburodunum (Ptol., It. Ant., Gad.) Ebrodunum (Strab.) Eburunum (Peut.) Ebredunum (Burd.) Ebrudunum (Rav.)
• Etymology: Clearly a Gaulish compound name whose first element is eburo- 'yew', see Eburomagus. The second element is Gaulish duno- 'fortress'.

Caturigomagus

• Place: Chorges, department Hautes-Alpes, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Caturigomagus (Gad.) Catorigomagus (Peut.) Caturrigas (It. Ant.) Catorigas (Burd.) Canduribagus (Rav.)
• Etymology: The name means 'the market-place of the Caturiges', being a compound with the Gaulish appellative mago- 'field, market-place'. See also Sostomagus and Eburomagus.

Alpes Cottiae

Alpes Cottiae, Matrona m.

• Place: Col de Montgenèvre pass, department Hautes-Alpes, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Alpes Cottiae (Ptol., Tac., Amm.) Matrona m. (Burd.) Alpis Cottia (Peut.)
• Etymology: Also the name of a Roman province, Alpes Cottiae was traditionally explained as deriving from Cottius, the name of a local king. This name could be related to Gaulish cotto- 'old', reconstructed although without any IE etymology. Some scholars (see Falileyev) points out that the original meaning of the latter was 'curved, bent', which could better explain the placename.
  The other name Matrona is formally the same as Matrona fl. (Belgica), which in turn is related to the IE name *mater- 'mother'. The semantic shift to the name of a mountain pass could be explained by means of intermediate formations like '(shaped like) breasts'.

Brigantio

• Place: Briançon, department Hautes-Alpes, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Brigantium (Ptol., Strab., Amm.) Brigantio (Peut., It. Ant.) Byrigante (Burd.) Bricantio (Rav.)
• Etymology: A common Celtic name, meaning '(the place of) the high, exalted (ones)'. Ultimately, the placename is related to the Gaulish appellative briga 'hillfort' and thus to the IE root *bher(e)g'h- 'high, mountain'.

Gaesabona

• Place: Cesana Torinese, province Torino, region Piemonte, Italy
• Name: Gessabona (Guid., Rav.) Gadaona (Peut.) Gesdaona (Burd.) Gaesaeona (Gad.)
• Etymology: Interpreted (Falileyev) as gaesa-bona from Gaulish gaeso- 'spear' and bona- 'foundation'. The latter is considered of unclear etymology, but probably it reflects the IE root *bheu- 'to be, grow'. Notce that intervocalic b tended to vanish in some varieties of Gaulish language.

Rama

• Place: La Rohce-de-Rame, department Hautes-Alpes, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Rama (Peut., It. Ant., Burd., Rav., Gad.)
• Etymology: Interpreted by Isaac as meaning 'excataveted (land)', from a possible Gaulish appellative rama cognate to Middle Irish rama 'an agricultural tool (spade?)' and ultimately derived to the IE root *ar(e)- 'to plough'.

Segusio

• Place: Susa, province Torino, region Piemonte, Italy
• Name: Segusium (Ptol., Paul. Diac.) Segussio (Burd.) Segusio (Plin., Peut., It. Ant., Gad.)
• Etymology: The first part of the name is likely the Gaulish appellative segos 'strength', which is from the IE root *seg'h- 'to hold, possess, overcome, victory'. The ending is a typical Celtic suffix ous-io.

Stabatio

• Place: Le Monêtier-les-Bains, department Hautes-Alpes, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Stabatio (Peut.) Savatio (Rav.)
• Etymology: If the form Stabatio is original, it might be derived from an unknown appellative reflecting the IE root *steb(h)- 'post, pillar, to support'. For the semantics, compare with Stabiae (Campania).

Ucenni or Iconii

Durotincum

• Place: between La Grave and Villar-d-Arêne, department Hautes-Alpes, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Durotincum (Peut.) Durotingum (Rav.)
• Etymology: A Gaulish compound name meaning 'fort protection'. For the first element duro-, see under Ictodurum. The second element is a Gaulish tinco- 'protection' that ultimately derives from the IE root *tenk- 'to thicken, solid, thick'.

Metlosedum

• Place: Chambon of Mizoën, department Isère, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Mellosedum (Peut.) Metroselum (Rav.)
• Etymology: The original name form is reconstructed after its counterpart Metlosedum (Lugdunensis) in the same Gaulish domain. It is a Gaulish compound name, whose first element is metlo- 'reaper', a cognate of Latin meto, -ere 'to reap'. The second element is Gaulish sedo- 'seat, location' that reflects the IE root *sed- 'to sit'.

Caturissium

• Place: possibly Le Bourg-d'Oisans, department Isère, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Catorissium (Peut.) Cantourisa (Rav.)
• Etymology: A Gaulish compound name, whose first element is catu- 'battle, army'. The second element has received several interpretations, among which that of an adjectival form *rig-s-io- from rig-s 'king' (see Falileyev).

Allobroges

Arar fl.

• Place: river Saône, France
• Name: Arar fl. (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Liv., Caes.)
• Etymology: Unknown, but related to an A-language stratum, see under Arauris fl.

Bautae

• Place: Les Fins of Annecy, department Haute-Savoie, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Bautae (It. Ant.) Boutae (Iord., inscr.)
• Etymology: If the spelling Bautae is correct, then compare with Bautex fl. (Transpadana) or with the IE root *b(h)eu- 'to swell, puff'. Otherwise, if the name should be corrected as Boutae, it has been tentatively explained with Gaulish bou 'cow' (Falileyev).

Bergusium

• Place: Bourgoin of Bourgoin-Jallieu, department Isère, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Bergusium (Peut.) Bergusia (It. Ant.) Birgusia (Rav.)
• Etymology: Clearly containing an element *bergu-s that derives from the IE root *bher(e)g'h- 'high, mountain'. The word is Celtic and probably Gaulish, although with a different grade than in briga 'castle, citadel'. Compare with Bergomum (Transpadana).

Casuaria

• Place: Viuz of Faverges, department Haute-Savoie, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Casuaria (It. Ant.)
• Etymology: Unclear.

Condate

• Place: Seyssel, department Haute-Savoie, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Condate (Peut., Rav.)
• Etymology: It is the Gaulish appellative condate 'confluence', which derives from a nomen actionis of the IE root *da- 'to flow'.

Cularo

• Place: Grenoble, department Isère, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Cularo (inscr.) Culabo (Peut.) Calarona (Not. Dign.) Curaro (Rav.)
• Etymology: Explained by Delamarre with a Gaulish cularo(n) 'cucumber, gourd', as '(field of) gourds'.

Etanna

• Place: Yenne, department Savoie, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Etanna (Peut.) Tenussilay (Rav.)
• Etymology: Unknown. An etymology from etno- 'bird' is given by Delamarre.

Genava

• Place: Genève, canton Genève, Switzerland
• Name: Genava (Caes., It. Ant.) Gennava (Peut.) Genua (Rav.)
• Etymology: A Gaulish appellative has been reconstructed as *genua 'mouth' after this placename and several Celtic cognates meaning the same. They derive from the IE root *g'enu- 'chin' and not from the analogous root *g'enu- 'knee, joint', to which the name of Genua (Liguria) is seemingly related.

Isara fl.

• Place: river Isère, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Isar fl. (Ptol.) Isara fl. (Plin., Flor.) Isarus fl. (Strab.) Izera (Rav.)
• Etymology: A clear descendent of the IE root *eis- 'to move rapidly'. The hydronym has several counterparts in the Celtic domain but also across Europe, thus it cannot be attributed to any IE stratum in particular.

Lavisco

• Place: Pont-de-Beauvoisin, department Isère, or Le-Pont-de-Beauvoisin, department Savoie, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Lavisco (Peut., Rav.) Labisco (It. Ant.)
• Etymology: If related to the passage of the stream Gueiers, the name could reflect a local appellative meaning 'step-stone bridge' derived from the IE root *leu- 'stone'.

Lemincum

• Place: Lémenc of Chambéry, department Savoie, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Lemincum (Peut., It. Ant.) Lenicium (Rav.)
• Etymology: Usually related to Gaulish lemo-, limo- 'elm', a kind of wood that was very much used by the Gauls.

Mantala

• Place: close to Saint-Pierre-d'Albigny, department Savoie, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Mantala (Peut., It. Ant., Rav.)
• Etymology: The placename reflects a Gaulish appellative mantalo- 'path, road' (*'the stamped'), derived from the IE root *men- 'to step, trade over, press'.

Morginnum

• Place: Moirans, department Isère, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Morginnum (Peut.) Maurogena (Rav.)
• Etymology: Apparently related to the IE roor *mereg'- 'edge, border'. However, the Gaulish cognate of this root was brogi-, which seems to exclude this etymology.

Tegna

• Place: Tain-l'Hermitage, department Drôme, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Tegna (Peut.) Genua (Rav.)
• Etymology: If not a late Roman name, usually (Delamarre) derived from a Gaulish word of the type *teg- 'house' related to the IE root *(s)teg- 'to cover'.

Turedonnum

• Place: Revel-Tourdan, department Isère, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Turedonnum (Peut.) (T)urdonnum (Rav.)
• Etymology: A Gaulish compound name, whose second element is probably only apparently coincident with Gaulish donno- 'dark' (but also 'noble') and is rather a local variant of duno- 'fort'. The first element could be a cognate of Gaulish turno- 'height' or rather a cognate of Latin turma 'band, flock'. These words are derived by Pokorny from two different IE roots of the type *tuer-.

Vienna

• Place: Vienne, department Isère, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Vienna (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Mel., Caes., Tac., It. Ant.) Vigenna (Peut.) Benna (Rav.)
• Etymology: No etymology available so far. Tentatively, it might be explained as a derivation of the IE root *uei- 'to reach towards' and thus a cognate of Latin via 'road'. The origin of the designation could have been from a 'bridge' on the Rhone river.

Segovellauni

Cerebelliaca

• Place: Montoison, department Drôme, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Cerebelliaca (Burd.)
• Etymology: Possibly a praedial designation, from a personal name related to the Gaulish appellative for 'deer'. See under Darentiaca for the suffix.

Umbennum

• Place: Ambonil, department Vaucluse, region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France
• Name: Umbennum (Burd.)
• Etymology: It seems a compound name with an unclear praeposition and the Gaulish appellative benno- 'height'. Tentatively, from the survival of the name one could infer an assimilated form *am(bi)-benno- 'by the hill'.

Ceutrones

Alpes Graiae

• Place: Petit-Saint-Bernard/Piccolo San Bernardo pass, between department Savoie, region Rhône-Alpes, France, and autonomous province Valle d'Aosta/Vallée d'Aoste, Italy
• Name: Alpes Graiae (Ptol., Plin., Tacit., It. Ant.) Alpis Graia (Peut., Rav.) Graium (Sen.)
• Etymology: Unknown. Tentatively related to Gurgures m. (Samnium) and similarly derived from the IE root *ger- 'to gather, put together' (in the sense of 'massif'). Celtic cognate of the latter root exist, for example Welsh gre 'horse flock'.

Axima

• Place: Aime, department Savoie, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Axima (Ptol., Peut.) Amima (Rav.)
• Etymology: Since some traces have been found of a theonym of the same form, the placename could have a similar origin as Auximum (Picenum)

Bergintrum

• Place: Bourg-Saint-Maurice, department Savoie, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Bergintrum (Peut., It. Ant.) Brenitum (Rav.)
• Etymology: Usually (Delamarre) the name is segmented as *berg(o)-entro- 'between the mountains', from Gaulish bergo-, bergu- 'mountain' (see under Bergusium) and enter, entar 'between'.

Darantasia

• Place: Moûtiers, department Savoie, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Darantasia (Peut., It. Ant.) Dara(n)tatia (Rav.)
• Etymology: The name may reflect the collective form *darant- of an appellative meaning 'oak', derived from the IE root *deru- 'tree'. Alternatively, Delamarre seems suggesting a participe form from a Gaulish dar(i)o- 'agitation, tumulte, rage', with allusion to the tumultuous waters of the river Isère. Considering the A-grade in the suffix (if < *-osio-), the origin of the name could be non Celtic.

Obilonna

• Place: Arbine of La Bâthie, department Savoie, region Rhône-Alpes, France
• Name: Obilonna (Peut.) Obilinnum (It. Ant.) Obelonum (Rav.)
• Etymology: The ending -onna is common in Gaulish hydronyms, see Olonna fl. (Transpadana). As for the stem, it could reflect a Gaulish diminutive *owilo- but its meaning is unknown (lamb?).

Volcae Arecomici

Agatha (i.)

• Place: Agde, department Hérault, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Agatha (Ptol., Strab., Plin., Mel., Rav.)
• Etymology: Founded by Phocaeans settlers from Massilia, the port kept a Greek omen name meaning 'good (luck)'.

*Alestum

• Place: Alès, department Gard, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: *Alestum (inferred from the survival of the name)
• Etymology: Likely related to a pre-Gaulish (that is inferred from the A-grade) appellative *alisa 'adler', from the IE root *el- 'red, brown'.

Ambrussum

• Place: Pont-Ambruis of Villetelle, department Hérault, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Ambrussum (It. Ant.) Ambrosium (Peut., Burd.)
• Etymology: The settlement was mainly serving a bridge on the river Vidourle. Thus the name is likely related to the an hydronym *ambra that should reflect the IE form *mbh-ro-, an extension of the IE root *(e)nebh- 'wet, damp, water, clouds'. Compare with Umbro fl. (Etruria) in a different domain.

*Brigetia

• Place: Brouzet-lès-Alès, department Gard, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: *Brigetia (inferred from the survival of the name, coins?)
• Etymology: A typical Gaulish name, related to the appellative briga 'mountain', which ultimately derives from the IE root *bher(e)g'h- 'high, mountain'. Compare, in the same Celtic domain, with Brigetio (Pannonia)

Cessero

• Place: Saint-Thibéry, department Hérault, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Cessero (Ptol., Plin., Peut.) Cessaro (Burd.) Araura (It. Ant.)
• Etymology: Usually considered as obscure (Falileyev). The alternative name Araura reflects the hydronym Arauris fl.

Dehae

• Place: Dio of Dio-et-Valquières, department Hérault, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Dehae (Greg. Tur.)
• Etymology: Unclear. Tentatively related to the IE root *dhegwh- 'to burn'. Similalrly to the nearby Combusta, the name could have pointed to a burn-off practice to clear land for agriculture.

Latara

• Place: Lattes, department Hérault, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Latara (Mel., Rav.) Latera (Plin.) Lattara (inscr.)
• Etymology: Traditionally (Falileyev) related to the hydronymic IE root *lat- 'wet, damp, swamp'. Indeed the site is called 'pond of the Volcae' by Mela. Other scholars think the name is a derivative of Latin latera 'brick' (TGF). The name is hardly Celtic, due to the morphological configuration (Falileyev).

Ledus fl.

• Place: river Lez, department Hérault, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Ledus fl. (Mel.) Heledus fl. (Avien.) Liria fl. (Plin.)
• Etymology: The relationship between the two different forms attested Ledus et Liria is not clear. Note that also the Liger fl. (Lugdunensis) was sometimes called Ledo fl.

Luteva

• Place: Lodève, department Hérault, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Luteva (Plin.) Loteva (Peut.)
• Etymology: Usually (Pokorny) derived from the form *lu-to- of the IE root *leu- 'dirt'. Since there are several Celtic cognates of this root, the placename could be Gaulish.

Magalona

• Place: Maguelone of Villeneuve-lès-Maguelone, department Hérault, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Megalona (Rav.) Magalona (late antiquity)
• Etymology: Usually (Falileyev) interpreted as 'prince's (place)', from a Gaulish magalo- 'prince', a well-known cognate of the IE root *meg'(h)- 'big'.

Mesua

• Place: Mèze, department Hérault, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Mesua (Mel.)
• Etymology: Tentatively, the name could be a metathesis of *Meusa, which in turn would reflect the IE root *meus- 'moss, mould'. Indeed, like many other places on the Narbonensis' coastal lagoon, the site was in a marshy area.

Nemausus

• Place: Nîmes, department Gard, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Nemausum (Ptol., Plin., It. Ant.) Nemausus (Strab., Mel., Burd.,) Nemusum (Peut.)
• Etymology: Interpreted tentatively by Falileyev as related to the IE root *nem- 'to bend' that has cognates such as Gaulish nanto 'valley' or Latin nemus 'groove'. The ending is however not clear. Another possible explaination analyzes the name as ne-maus- 'on the marsh', where the first part reflects the zero-grade form of the IE particle *en 'in' and the second part is the O-grade form of the IE root *meus- 'modd, mould'. The latter explaination requires an A-language stratum.

Setius m.

• Place: Mont Saint Clair (Sète), department Hérault, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Setius m. (Ptol., Avien.) Sigius m. (Strab.)
• Etymology: A cognate of Setia (Latium), the name derives from the extension *seit- of the IE root *sei- 'to be damp, to drip'. The reason of such a name is that the hill dominates a marshy area (étang de Thau).

Sextantio

• Place: Substantion of Castelnau-le-Lez, department Hérault, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Sextatio (Peut., It. Ant.) Sostantio (Burd.) Sextantio (Rav.)
• Etymology: Usually considered having a Latin derivation, but Falileyev also posits a possible origin from Gaulish numeral sextan 'seven', later reinterpreted as the Latin numeral sex 'six'. However, a similar name is found in early Middle Ages also in Samnium. See also under Sostomagus.

Ucetia

• Place: Uzès, department Gard, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Ucetia (Not. Dign., inscr.)
• Etymology: The placename has been related to a Gaulish deity name Ucuetis, which has several possible explainations (Falileyev). Other scholars (Delamarre) reconstruct a Gaulish compound *uoceton that could explain the placename. The first element is the preposition uo- 'under, below' and the second element is the appellative ceto- 'forest'. However, the disappearing of the o of uo- implied by this explaination does not occur in several personal names attested, so this reconstruction seems problematic. Another possibility is to relate the name to the zero-grade form of the IE root *uek- 'to be bent'.

Ugernum

• Place: Beaucaire, department Gard, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Ugernum (Strab., Peut., Rav.)
• Etymology: Tentatively reconstructed as *ug-ro-no- '(of) the strong(hold)', from the zero-grade form of the derivative *uog'-ro-s 'strong' of the IE root *ueg'- 'fresh, strong'. The initial u- might also imply a Gaulish preposition uo- 'under, below', but the stem would be then unclear.

*Venedubrium

• Place: Vézénobres, department Gard, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: *Venedubrium (inferred from the survival of the name)
• Etymology: Clealry a Gaulish compound name. The former element is uene- 'kin, fellow', from the IE root *uen(e)- 'to strive, whish for, love'. The latter element is dubro- 'water', a cognate of the IE root *dheubh- 'smoke, misty'.

Vindomagus

• Place: not proveably Le Vigan, department Gard, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Vindomagus (Ptol.)
• Etymology: A clear Gaulish compound name, meaning 'white field', from Gaulish uindo- 'white', a cognate of the IE root *ueid- 'to see, know', and mago- 'field, market'.

Ruteni

Condatomagus

• Place: La Graufesenque of Millau, department Aveyron, region Midi-Pyrénées, France
• Name: Condatomagus (Peut.)
• Etymology: A Gaulish compound name, whose first element is condate 'confluence' (see Condate), while the second term is magos 'field, market' (see Eburomagus). The city was situated at the confluence of the Tarn and Dourbie rivers.

Volcae Tectosagi

Arauris fl.

• Place: river Hérault, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Araurius fl. (Ptol.) Arauris fl. (Strab., Mel.) Araris fl. (Plin.)
• Etymology: The hydronym is usually (Pokorny) separated as *ar-aur-, where the latter element is explained with the form *(a)uer- of the IE root *au(e)- 'to flow'. The first element ar- could be related to the IE root *er- 'to move', of which several Celtic cognates are known.

Atax fl.

• Place: river Aude, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Atax fl. (Strab., Mel., Plin.) Atagus fl. (Ptol.) Attagus fl. (Avien.)
• Etymology: Usually (Delamarre) explained as a Gaulish hydronym *Atacos, derived from a form *at(e)-ako-, from the perfix ate- 'very' and the adjective *aco- 'rapid'. The latter is known to reflect the basic form of the IE root *ak'- 'sharp', while the former descends from the IE root *ati 'over'.

Badeia

• Place: Baziège, department Haute-Garonne, region Midi-Pyrénées, France
• Name: Badeia, Badegia, Badera (Peut.)
• Etymology: Possibly related to the IE root *bhedh- 'to pierce, dig', with reference to a ditch accompanying a palisade or a channel draining the marshy plain of the Hers river.

Baeterrae

• Place: Bézieres, department Hérault, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Baetirae (Ptol.) Baetera (Strab.) Baeterrae (Plin., Mel.) Beterae (Peut.) Beterrae (It. Ant., Burd.) Besara (Avien.)
• Etymology: The name belongs to a numerous series of placenames showing the stem *bai-, as pointed out by Villar. According to the latter scholar, the origin of such names is ultimately the IE root *gwhei- 'bright, shining'. This etymology implicitly posits a consonant shift toward b in an unattested language spreading from Iberia through southern France to Liguria. In the latter region, the ethnic name Baebiani was located, still belonging to the *bai- series. However, the only form reconstructed for the IE root *gwhei- is the derivative *gwhei-d-ro-s, which does not fit the placename Bae-terrae. As for the second part of the name, compare with Volaterrae (Etruria) etc.

Candidum pr.

• Place: Cape Leucate, department Aude, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Candidum pr. (Avien.)
• Etymology: The name means 'white (promotory)' in Latin. However that could be simply a translation of a previous Greek name, which is inferred by the survival of the current name Leucate.

Carcasum

• Place: Cité of Carcassonne, department Aude, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Carcasum (Plin.) Carcaso (Ptol.) Carcasso (Peut., Burd.)
• Etymology: Possibly related to the IE root *kerk' 'to wrinkle, become thin' and thus to an O-grade form *kork-as-(i)-o(n) later vocalized accordingly in an A-language.

Eburomagus

• Place: Bram, department Aude, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Eburomagus (Peut.) Hebromagus (Burd.) Ebromagus (Paul. Nol.)
• Etymology: Clearly a Gaulish compound name, formed by the first element eburo- 'yew' and the second element magos 'field, market'. The former appellative derives from the IE root *ere(b)h- 'a kind of dark colour', the latter to the IE root *meg'(h)- 'big'.

Elusio

• Place: Montferrand, department Aude, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Elesiodunum (Cicer.) Elusio (Burd.)
• Etymology: The original form of the name is unclear. However, it is often (Falileyev) related to the other placename Elusa (Aquitania), usually (Nègre) considered as a pre-Gaulish name.

Hungunuerro

• Place: La Tonguère of Maurens, department Gers, region Midi-Pyrénées, France
• Name: Hungunuerrum (Burd.)
• Etymology: Unknown.

Narbo

• Place: Narbonne, department Aude, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Narbo (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Mel., Peut., It. Ant., Burd.)
• Etymology: Tentatively explained as a cognate of Norba (Latium) as 'the strong(hold)'. The name would thus reflect an O-grade form of the IE root *ner- 'vital energy, man' in an A-language where (long) o > a.

Orobis fl.

• Place: river Orb, department Hérault, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Orobis fl. (Avien.) Orbis fl. (Strab., Mel.) Orobius fl. (Ptol.) Orobs fl. (Rav.)
• Etymology: According to Delamarre, the hydronym reflects Gaulish orbio- 'inheriter' ('*orphan'). This explaination is not very convincing. Alternatively, one could posit a relationship with the fully O-grade form of the IE root *ereb(h)- 'a kind of dark colour', for the colour of the waters. The O-vocalism points to a Celtic language, however, a Gaulish descendent of the same root was eburo- 'yew tree', a dissimilated form with a different grade.

Sostomagus

• Place: Castelnaudary, department Aude, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Sostomagus (Burd.)
• Etymology: Usually (Falileyev) considered as a compound name with the first element being the Latin sextus 'sixth' and the second element the Gaulish magos 'field' or better 'market-place'.

*Tasgodunum

• Place: not identified, probably department Haute-Garonne, region Midi-Pyrénées, France
• Name: inferred from Tasgoduni (Plin.)
• Etymology: Likely a Gaulish compound name with duno- 'fort'. The first element tasgo- is traditionally interpreted as 'badger'. Another explaination (Isaac) compares it with the nearby river Tescou. Thus tasgo- could have been an hydronym and it could have meant 'splashing', probably from an onomatopoeic Celtic word.

Tolosa

• Place: Toulouse, department Haute-Garonne, region Midi-Pyrénées, France
• Name: Tolosa (Plin., Caes., Cicer., It. Ant., Burd.) Tolossa (Strab., Dio Cass.)
• Etymology: Although not proveably Celtic, the explaination of the name requires an O-language, since it might derive from the IE root *tel(e) 'flat, flat ground, board', alluding to the morphology of the site with respect to the nearby valleys and mountains.

Usuerva

• Place: Goujac of Lézignan-Corbières, department Aude, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Usuerva (Peut.) Hosuerbae (Burd.)
• Etymology: A possible Celtic etymology (Isaac) is from *uts-swerwa, with the latter element that would mean 'bitter' as other Celtic cognates of the IE root *suer- 'to cut, pierce'.

Vernodubrus fl.

• Place: river Verdouble, department Aude, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Vernodu(b)rus fl. (Plin.)
• Etymology: The hydronym is clearly a Gaulish compound name. The former element is Gaulish verno- 'alder' that reflects the IE root *uer_e-na- 'alder, poplar'. The latter element is Gaulish dubro- 'water', which is derived from the IE root *dheubh- 'smoke, misty' (Pokorny) or from the other IE root *dheub- 'deep'.

Vernosolis

• Place: Lavernose of Lavernose-Lacasse, department Haute-Garonne, region Midi-Pyrénées, France
• Name: Vernosolis (It. Ant.)
• Etymology: A Gaulish compound name. The former element is possibly the Gaulish uerno- 'alder, marsh', a tree very common on the banks of the Louge river. The phytonym reflects the IE root *uer_e-na- 'alder, poplar'. However, the second element is unclear.

Sardones or Sordes

Caucoliberis

• Place: Collioure, department Pyrénées-Orientales, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Caucholiberis (Rav.) Caucoliberis (late antiquity)
• Etymology: Apparently a compound name whose second part recalls that of the nearby Iliberris. As for the first part, it is sometimes related to some appellatives of the Basque language, generally assuming that it meant 'harbour (of the city Iliberris)'. However, the stem *kauk- is also found outside of the Iberian domain, see for example Caucana (Sicilia). Since this stem likely reflects the IE root *keuk-, an extension of *keu- 'to bend', and since among the cognate appelattives we find the meaning of 'breast', we might posit that the part Cauco- attached to the name of the Iberian town meant 'harbour' (similarly to Latin sinus 'breast' and 'harbour') in some A-language.

Iliberris, Iliberris fl.

• Place: Elne (Iliberris), river Tech (Iliberris fl.), department Pyrénées-Orientales, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Iliberris (Liv.) Illiberis (Ptol., Plin.) Eliberris (Mel.) Illiberris (Peut.) Illeris fl. (Ptol.) Ilibirris fl. (Strab.)
• Etymology: Usually compared with Illiberis (Baetica) and interpretes from Basque iri 'town' and berri 'new' as 'new town'. It is one of the clearest examples of a Vasco-Iberian linguistic stratum. However, according to Villar the series *il- has an Iberian origin, rather than Vasconic. Concerning the meaning of the name, the 'old' town could have been the Pyrenae cited by Herodotus. The hydronym reflects the name of the city, not vice versa. Indeed, the river had its own name, Tichis fl.

Pyrenaeus m., Ad Pyreneum

• Place: The Pyrenees, France/Spain (Pyrenaeus m.) Col du Perthus (Ad Pyrenaeum)
• Name: Pyrenaeus m. (Ptol., Plin., Liv., Mel., Sil. It.) Pyrene (Strab.) Pyrenaea (Plut.)
• Etymology: Unknown. Often related to a city called Pyrene mentioned by Herodotus as being at the sources of the Danube in a possibly confused Western geography.

Ruscino, Ruscino fl.

• Place: Château-Roussillon of Perpignan (Ruscino), river Têt or Agly (Ruscino fl.), department Pyrénées-Orientales, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Ruscino (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Liv., Mel.) Ruscio (Peut., It. Ant.) Ruscino fl. (Strab.) Roscyno fl. (Polyb.) Rhoscynus fl. (Avien.)
• Etymology: Usually (Isaac) related to Gaulish *rusca '(tree) bark', which has several Celtic cognates of unknown origin. The relation between the 'bark' and the town or the river is unclear for many (Falileyev). However, compare for the semantics with Crustumerium (Latium). Another possibility is the meaning of the supposed Germanic word that was borrowed into the Celtic languages, which is akin to English rush. That explaination would fit better the hydronym.

Sordus fl.

• Place: not identified, department Pyrénées-Orientales, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Sordus fl. (Avien.) Sordica palus (Avien.)
• Etymology: Likely reflecting the IE root *suor-do- 'black, dark', allunding to the colour of the waters or to its muddy appearence. The ethnic name Sordones likely derives from the river name.

Telis fl.

• Place: river Têt, department Pyrénées-Orientales, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Telis fl. (Mel.) Tecus fl. (Plin.) *Tetus fl. (inferred from the survival of the name)
• Etymology: Original spelling unclear.

Tichis fl.

• Place: river Tech, department Pyrénées-Orientales, region Languedoc-Roussillon, France
• Name: Tichis fl. (Plin., Mel.)
• Etymology: There were probably two nearby rivers with similar or identical names, the other one being Ticer fl. (Tarraconensis) that was mentioned by Pliny under the name Tichis fl. as well. As for the etymology, the hydronym reflects the IE root *tekw- 'to run, flow' and it has likely a Celtic origin. Compare with Ticinus fl. (Transpadana), in the same Celtic domain.

Conclusions

The most important stratum that is possible to recognize in the region is obviously the Gaulish one, which is attested by several compound names. Many clear Gaulish appellatives are as well recognized in the toponyms.

Other strata are more difficult to identifiy. There is some evidence of a non-negligible A-language stratum in the coastal south of the region. Apart from this vocalism (and the presence of p- which contrast to known Celtic languages), no other particular shifts seemingly characterize this stratum. We might be tempted to attribute these toponyms, often hydronyms, to the Alteuropaeisch ('old European') stratum first proposed by H. Krahe as a substrate to historically known Celtic, Germanic, etc. languages.

Given the territorial continuity to Liguria in Italy, where two distinct non-Gaulish strata were identified - a possibly Celtic but pre-Gaulish one and a Liguro-Sicanian one - some of the A-language toponyms could actually belong to one of these two strata, particularly the Liguro-Sicanian one that was surely an A-language.

Finally, near the borders of Spain, there is at least one clear example of a name explained by Basque language, which points at an Vasco-Iberian superstratum that partially displaced a previously A-language or Celtic domain.

Greek names are of course rather popular in the coastal areas colonized by Greeks in the 1st millennium BC.

Last modified: May 17, 2009
by Antonio Sciarretta
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