Alpes m.

• Place: mountain range Alpi, Italy
• Name: Alpes m. (many sources)
• Etymology: The oronym has a good etymology if a Liguro-Sicanian language stratum is assumed. In fact, it may derived from the IE root *albho- 'white', in the specific meaning of 'clear', i.e., 'not covered by woods', referred to the higher parts of the mountains. Still today the Italian appellative alpe refers to the pasture lands in the highlands. Notice that for Strabo, the ancient name of the Alpes was Albia, i.e., a name preserving the original *bh>b.

*Apua

• Place: not identified, province Massa-Carrara, region Toscana, Italy
• Name: inferred from survival of the name Apuan
• Etymology: The name has a good etymology from the IE root *abh- 'quick, abrupt', in a language where *bh>p. This language should have been the pre-Celtic Ligurian, belonging to the Liguro-Sicanian stratum that covered most of the Tyrrhenian part of Italy. Such an etymology is not completely in contrast with that by Alessio and De Giovanni, two substratists, who believed in a "Mediterranean" root *ap-/aph- 'sharp'.

Berigiema m.

• Place: not identified, province Genova, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Berigiema m. (inscr.)
• Etymology: Traditionally (Kretschmer, Mariani), it has been interpreted as *beri-giema '(it) bears snow', from the IE roots *bher- 'to bear, carry', and *g'hei-m(n)- 'cold, snow'. An alternative explaination (Petracco Sicardi), more likely for me, is *berig-i-ema. The suffix, also found in Ceptiema fl. and Lebriemelus fons, may be derived from an IE *-mon-. The stem may be clearly derived from IE *bher(e)g'h- 'high, mountain'.

Blustiemelum iug.

• Place: not identified, province Genova, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Blustiemelum iug. (inscr.)
• Etymology: According to Petracco Sicardi the name shows a Ligurian word *blusto- (*bhlud-to-) 'swollen, muddy', derived from the IE root *bhleu- 'to blow, swell, flow', and the double ending -(i)em-elas also present in Lebriemelus fons. In contrast, Devoto separated the place name into *blustie-mello-, with the first part akin to Latin flos 'flower' (IE root *bhlo-), and the second part meaning 'hill', possibly from the IE root *men- 'to tower'. However, the latter etymology is less likely for me, since the suffix *-i-ema (< *-ie-mon) seems to have been very productive in Liguria.

Boacia fl.

• Place: river Vara, province La Spezia, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Boacias fl. (Ptol.) Boaciae (It. Ant.)
• Etymology: Tentatively, the hydronym could be analyzed as *gwo(u)-akw-ia 'water of the cows' (i.e., where the cows pass the river), from a word 'cow' derived from the IE root *gwou- 'cattle', and a word meaning 'water' and deriving from the IE root *akwa- 'water'.

Bodetia

• Place: not identified, province La Spezia, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Bodetia (It. Ant.)
• Etymology: The name is likely of Celtic origin, from some appellative meaning 'grave, pit' derived from the IE root *bhedh- 'to pierce, dig'. Ultimately, the name is corradical of Bodincomagus.

Caeptiema

• Place: Pietralavezzara di Campomorone, province Genova, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Caeptiema (inscr.)
• Etymology: The name of a valley. The first part recalls the IE root *k'uei- 'shining, white', probably with the meaning of 'clearance', or the IE root *kap- 'a piece of land'. But for Petracco Sicardi, the etymology is rather the same as Latin campus field'. However, these derive from the IE root *kam-p- 'to bend', which is nasalized unlike the placename. The ending may be compared with that of Berigiema. Another interesting comparison is with Caepiana (Lusitania), in a Celtic domain.

Comberanea fl.

• Place: river Rizzolo, province Genova, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Comberanea fl. (inscr.)
• Etymology: The hydronym is mentioned by Pokorny which gives for it a strict Celtic etymology, being comparable with Middle Irish commar (*kom-bero-) 'confluence', derived from the IE root *bher- 'to boil, swell, get high'.

Entella fl.

• Place: river Entella, province Genova, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Entella fl. (Ptol., Plin.)
• Etymology: The name has been explained (UTET) with a Ligurian word related to Latin inte 'inside' or inter (*enter) 'between'. The IE preposition is *enter. A similar name is found among the Elymi, Entella (Sicilia).

Fertor fl.

• Place: river Bisagno, province Genova, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Fertor fl. (Plin.)
• Etymology: The name seems to be identical to Latin *fertor 'who brings', which shows a clear Italic phonetics. Then, it should be a late Latin hydronym, or a Latinization of a previous Ligurian name. Compare with Fertor fl. (Apulia).

Genua

• Place: Genova, province Genova, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Genua (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Mel., Peut., It. Mar., Paul. Diac.)
• Etymology: The name has a classical IE etymology, found also in Pokorny, from the IE root *g'enu- 'knee, joint', probably for the shape of the harbour. Compare with Genusia (Apulia).

Hasta

• Place: Prà di Genova, province Genova, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Hasta (Peut.)
• Etymology: See under the more famous Asta.

Lemuris fl., Lemurinus m.

• Place: river Verde (Lemuris fl.), mount Lavergo (Lemurinus m.), province Genova, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Lemuris fl. (inscr.) Lemurinus m. (inscr.)
• Etymology: The name of the mountain seems to derive from that of the river, which in turn may be explained with the IE root *(s)lei- 'to pour, slimy', likely through an extension *slei-m. The ending may represent an ancient word *ur- for 'water', see under the IE root *(a)uer- 'water, rain, flow'.

Macra fl.

• Place: river Magra, regions Toscana-Liguria, Italy
• Name: Macra fl. (Plin.) Macralla fl. (Ptol.)
• Etymology: The name is likely related to Latin macer 'slender' and thus to the IE root *mak'- 'long, slender', referring to the shape of the river.

Man(n)icelus fons

• Place: a spring in Mignanego, province Genova, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Man(n)icelus fons (inscr.)
• Etymology: The second part of the name could recall the IE root *gwel- 'to drip, flow, to throw', which is productive for appellatives meaning 'spring'.

Neviasca fl.

• Place: river Paveto, province Genova, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Neviasca fl. (inscr.)
• Etymology: The name could likely be a derivate of the IE root *naus 'ship', which seems to have produced many hydronyms, through a formation *nau-i-as-ska, maybe meaning 'navigable' like in Sanskrit navya. Compare with Navarus fl. (Britannia), Navia fl. (Tarraconensis), in the same Celtic domain. The suffix -asca has been interpreted by substratist scholars as a proof for the name being pre-IE.

Porcobera fl.

• Place: river Polcevera, province Genova, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Porcobera fl. (inscr.) Porcifera fl. (Plin.)
• Etymology: A well-known Ligurian etymology (UTET). The hydronym is a compound of *porco- 'furrow' or 'a kind of fish' and *bera- 'to carry'. The first appellative is derived from the IE root *perk'- 'to tear out, dig out, furrow' or, more likely, from. The second part is from the IE root *bher- 'to bear, carry'. This means that the place-name is not Gaulish for the initial *p-, and probably not Ligurian, for the conservation of *bh.

Ricina

• Place: Recco, province Genova, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Ricina (Peut., It. Ant.)
• Etymology: Like Ricina (Picenum), the name is a Gaulish appellative rica 'furrow' (Anreider, Pokorny), from the IE root *perk'- 'to tear out, dig out, furrow'.

Rutuba fl.

• Place: river Roia, province Imperia, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Rutuba fl. (Plin., Lucan.)
• Etymology: A good "Ligurian" etymology could be *rut-uba. The first part is *rut- 'red', derived from the IE root *reudh- 'red', with the shift *dh>t that I assumed for the "Liguro-Sicanian" stratum. The second part is a widely spread hydronymic stem *uba (see Villar), possibly the same as the variant *up- of *ap- 'water, river'. Compare with the name of the Rutuli in Latium, and with Rutupiae fl. (Britannia).

Savo

• Place: Savona, province Savona, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Savo, -onis (Liv.) Saona (Paul. Diac.)
• Etymology: The placename is likely related to Savo fl. (Campania) and thus to the IE root *seu- 'juice, liquid', which is the basis of all the series *sav-.

Segesta Tigulliorum

• Place: Sestri Levante, province Genova, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Segesta Tigulliorum (Plin.) Segesta (It. Mar.)
• Etymology: Other Segesta's are found in the Celtic domain, e.g., Segesta Tigulliorum (Liguria), Segesta (Venetia), Segestica i. (Pannonia). These names are clearly from Gaulish segos 'strength (stronghold)', which is from the IE root *seg'h- 'to hold, possess, overcome, victory' and may be reconstructed as a compound *seges-sta 'place of the victory'.

Tavia fl.

• Place: river Taggia, province Imperia, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Tavia fl. (It. Mar.)
• Etymology: The hydronym has two exact counteparts like Tava fl. (Britannia), which likely derive from the IE root *teu- 'to swll, crowd, folk, fat, strong, boil, abscess'. Also the Ligurian name could therefore be Celtic in origin.

Vada Sabatia

• Place: Vado Ligure, province Savona, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Vada Sabatia (Plin.) Sabata (Ptol., Strab.) Sabatia (Mel.) Vada Sabates (Peut.) Vada Savada (It. Mar.)
• Etymology: A Latin name, from vadum 'passage, harbor' and the name of the Sabates, a Ligurian tribe. The latter has been related to an hydronym from the IE root *sab- 'to taste, perceive'.

Vindupale fl.

• Place: river Riasso, province Genova, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Vindupale fl. (inscr.)
• Etymology: It has been explained as an IE hydronym, possibly of Celtic origin. The first part may be easily explained with Gaulish *vindos 'white', which is from the IE root *ueid- 'to see, know'. The second part is likely a hydronymic stem, derived from the IE root *pele- 'swamp'. The meaning of the name could be therefore 'white (or shining) water'.

Vinelasca fl.

• Place: not identified, province Genova, region Liguria, Italy
• Name: Vinelasca fl. (inscr.)
• Etymology: The ending is the same found in Neviasca fl., but the first part is unclear.

Alba Pompeia

• Place: Alba, province Cuneo, region Piemonte, Italy
• Name: Alba Pompeia (Ptol., Plin., Peut.)
• Etymology: To the Celto-Ligurian appellative *alba 'settlement', the name of the consul G. Pompeus was added when the town became a Roman colony. For the meaning of *alba, see also Alba Longa (Latium), and under the IE root *albho- 'white'. Probably the original meaning of the name was 'clearance (in the wood)'.

Asta

• Place: Asti, province Asti, region Piemonte, Italy
• Name: Asta (Ptol., Strab.) Hasta (Plin., Peut.) Astensis civ. (Paul. Diac.)
• Etymology: According to UTET, the name derives from Latin hasta 'pole', which was placed on a rural property to indicate its possess. According to other scholars, it would be a Celtic (?) word meaning 'high place'. In this case, the initial h- would have appeared under Latin influence. There was another Hasta in Liguria.

Bersula fl.

• Place: not identified, region Piemonte, Italy
• Name: Bersula fl. (Peut.)
• Etymology: Mentioned by Pokorny as a Ligurian derivate of the IE root *bheres- 'quick', which is a likely explaination for a hydronym. More than Liguro-Sicanian, the name should be Celtic or from the pre-Celtic stratum known as Alteuropaeisch.

Bobium

• Place: Bobbio, province Piacenza, region Emilia-Romagna, Italy
• Name: Bobium (Paul. Diac.)
• Etymology: It may be compared with a couple of placenames Bovium (Britannia) and thus interpreted as a Celtic (Gaulish) toponym.

Bodincomagus

• Place: close to Monteu da Po, province Torino, region Piemonte, Italy
• Name: Bodincomagus (Plin.)
• Etymology: The name is clearly Gaulish and it is composed with the hydronym Bodincus fl. and the appellative magos 'field'.

Carrea

• Place: Chieri, province Torino, region Piemonte, Italy
• Name: Carrea (Plin.) Potentia (Peut.)
• Etymology: Usually interpreted as a Gaulish name, from a stem *carr- meaning 'stone' or similar. The substratist scholars (UTET) consider this stem as pre-IE, "Mediterranean". Other scholars (Villar) postulated an IE root *karr-. For Pokorny, it is not clear whether this stem should be identified with the root *kar- 'hard' (possibly from its extension *kars-), or *(s)ker- 'to cut'. When the town became a Roman colony, the specification Potentia was added. See Potentia (Lucania), Potentia (Picenum).

Ceba

• Place: Ceva, province Cuneo, region Piemonte, Italy
• Name: *Ceba from cebanum (Plin.), inferred from the survival of the name
• Etymology: Maybe it is to compare with Cebenna, a different spelling for Cemmenus m. (Lugdunensis).

Dertona

• Place: Tortona, province Alessandria, region Piemonte, Italy
• Name: Dertona (Ptol., Plin., Strab., Cic., Peut., Paul. Diac.)
• Etymology: It could be a Gaulish name, derived from, the IE root *dher- 'to hold, support', through a suffix or an extension *dher-to-.

Industria

• Place: Monteu da Po, province Torino, region Piemonte, Italy
• Name: Industria (Plin.)
• Etymology: A Latin name for this colony, founded by the old town of Bodincomagus.

Iria

• Place: Voghera, province Pavia, region Lombardia, Italy
• Name: Iria (Ptol., Plin., Peut. It. Ant.)
• Etymology: Unknown. The name is to compare with Iria Flavia (Tarraconensis).

Libarna

• Place: close to Serravalle Scrivia, province Alessandria, region Piemonte, Italy
• Name: Libarna (Ptol., Plin.) Libarnum (Peut.)
• Etymology: The name belongs to a wide series *lib-, which has been interpreted in several different ways. According to the substratist scholars, this is a pre-IE stem related to the concepts of 'stone' or 'plain'. More likely, it can be derived from the extension *(s)leib- 'slimy' of the IE root *(s)lei- 'to pour, slimy'. In this case, the name *leib_er-na would have been referred to the quality of the ground. The conservation of *b is both Gaulish and Ligurian.

Odubria fl.

• Place: not identified, region Piemonte, Italy
• Name: Odubria fl. (Peut.)
• Etymology: Likely it is a compound with the Celtic hydronym dubro- 'water, stream', derived from the IE root *dheubh- 'smoke, misty'. Compare in the Celtic domain with Dubris fl. (Britannia), Vernodubrum (Narbonensis).

Bodincus fl., Padus fl.

• Place: river Po, regions Piemonte, Lombardia, Emilia-Romagna, Veneto, Italy
• Name: Bodincus fl. (Plin.) Padus fl. (Ptol., Plin., Paul. Diac.)
• Etymology: Pliny says that Bodincus is the old Ligurian name, meaning 'bottomless', while Padus is another name for the same river. Actually the linguistic analysis let us suppose that Padus is the name in the Liguro-Sicanian stratum, while Bodincus in a Celtic or Alteuropaeisch language. Both derive from the IE root *bhedh- 'to pierce, dig'. In the Liguro-Sicanian language (Ligurian), the dissimilation gave *bhed- and thus the consonant shift *ped-, with ablaut *pad-. Vice versa, the other stratum, possibly typical of the lower part of the river, preserved the original stops as *bod-, with a different O-grade. Finally, *-inkos seems to be a typical Celtic suffix.

Tanarus fl.

• Place: river Tanaro, region Piemonte, Italy
• Name: Tanarus fl. (Plin., Paul. Diac.)
• Etymology: According to Pokorny, the hydronym derives from the IE root *(s)ten- 'to groan', from the sound of the water.

Trebia fl.

• Place: river Trebbia, region Emilia-Romagna, Italy
• Name: Trebia fl. (Liv., Sil., Nep.)
• Etymology: It resembles various Italic placenames, e.g., Trebiae (Umbria), Treba (Latium), Trebula (Samnium), Trebula Suffenas (Latium), Trebula Balliensis (Campania), Trebula Mutuesca (Samnium), which derive from the IE root *treb- 'building, dwelling', though this origin is unlikely for a hydronym. A possible connection with *d(e)reu- 'to run' is difficult to sustain for the shift *d>t.

Vardacate

• Place: disputed, province Alessandria, region Piemonte, Italy
• Name: Vardacate (Plin.) Vardagate (inscr.)
• Etymology: The ending -ate is typically Gaulish. The first part can be related to the IE root *uerd- 'wart', from the shape of the terrain.

Varusa fl.

• Place: river Versa, province Asti, region Piemonte, Italy
• Name: Varusa fl. (Peut.)
• Etymology: A hydronym showing the very productive stem *var- which is likely derived from the IE root *(a)uer- 'water, rain, flow'. The ending -usa could reflect an original S-stem *uarus-.

Conclusions

There seems to be at least three different strata in Liguria's toponymy. The most recent could be a form of Gaulish, and it appears in a number of placenames with clear Celtic counterparts or that can be explained with known Celtic appellatives.

A second stratum, maybe older is the one that I propose to call Liguro-Sicanian. This hypothetical language can be traced from a number of placenames, mainly of mountains and rivers like the very Alpes m. and Padus fl., showing a peculiar consonant shift, e.g., *bh>p, *dh>t, etc. Such a stratum could have occupied the whole Tyrrhenian coast of Italy before the Western Italic branch.

A third group of placenames is of difficult attribution. Some of them show an initial p-, which excludes a Gaulish origin, but at the same time they do not show the typical Ligurian consonant shift. Actually this Pre-Celtic stratum, if a separate language group, seem to have had a very regular consonant system, so maybe it is rather old. The situation is similar to that of the Lusitanian language in Iberian peninsula, or of the generic Alteuropaeisch stratum postulated by many scholars.